ࡱ> @ 9 bjbj "uu)D^D^D^D^L^}@`@`@`@`@`@`@`@`tvvvvvv$5RlQ@`@`@`@`J.@`@`tt6ܟ@`4` nC^GD^:5H}ؠ8 @` 6k sDNy>@`@`@`,1,14Terrestrial habitat types 4.1. Lowland moist non-flooded broadleaf forest General description and geographic variation Lowland tropical moist forest is a closed, high forest, characterized by the large number of tree species occurring together. Gregarious dominants are uncommon. The forest in general does not have conspicuous stratification, but is conventionally regarded as having three tree layers, emergent trees, main stratum of 25-35m, and smaller shade-tolerant trees. Understory vegetation, especially herbaceous plants, is often sparse. Cylindrical bole, pinnate leaf, large leaf blade, buttress, liana, and cauliflory (flower borne on the trunk) are common. It occurs in a climate where water stress is absent with no regular annual dry season and an average of monthly rainfall >=100 mm, or where water stress is intermittent with short dry season of monthly rainfall <=60 mm or with particular soil conditions. This factor is coupled with high temperature (mean temperature >=180C of the coldest month of the year) and a strong evapotranspiration derived from the low-latitude and low-altitude rain forests and wetlands. Tropical moist forest was coined to cover both rain and seasonal forests (Whitmore, 1990). The Lowland Neotropical moist forest occurs in five regions (Prance, 1989), determined by biogeographic history: Mexico, Central America, and Pacific coasts of Colombia and Ecuador: The moist forest extends from the southern part of Veracruz (190N) in discontinuous patches to Panama and merges into the Choc rainforest, from northern Colombia to northern Ecuador. Choc rainforest is the wettest region in the world with annual precipitation >=9000 mm, and is an important center of rainforest endemism. In Central America, more moist forests exist along the wetter Caribbean sea coast. Transandean South America: along foothills of the Andes with elevation below 1,000 m. Amazonia, Orinoco and the Guianas host the largest area of continuous moist forest in the world, which includes part of the territory of Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. In most regions of northern South America the lower limit of annual precipitation3 for humid forests is approximately 1,700 mm. The Atlantic coastal forest of Brazil, a narrow belt 120-160 km wide stretching from southern Bahia to northern Rio Grande do Sul about 300S along the River Taquari, has a high degree of endemism, but the forest landscape is highly fragmented and only about 4% of original forest remain (Por, 1992). The Atlantic forest extends beyond the tropics. Moist forest in the subtropical zone is restricted to the wettest sites and the deepest, most fertile soils. In South America, subtropical moist forest, including Alto Parana forest, extends from southern Brazil and easternmost Paraguay to northeastern Argentina. Caribbean islands: The moist forest occurs mainly in areas where the presence of mountains increases rainfall, e.g., northern part of eastern Cuba, northeastern Jamaica, eastern Hispaola, northeastern Puerto Rico, and small patches in the Lesser Antilles. Community types/zonation and major gradients within the system (patterns) Major factors that determine variation in community types within lowland tropical moist forest: Precipitation: The amount of rainfall and length of dry season often determine the occurrences of evergreen forest or seasonally dry forest. Temperature: Yearly extreme temperature fluctuations result in cold-front stressed forests in SW Amazonia and the southern Atlantic region and non-cold-front stressed forests in Mexico and Central America. Topography: Zonation may occur depending on whether the forest is on a plain, or rolling hills, or foothills of a mountain range. Edaphic conditions (soil quality or fertility) can create special community types. Forests on white sand soil, on clay soil, or over limestone/ ultrabasic rock differ considerably in species composition. Natural disturbance includes earthquakes, hurricanes, landslides, extreme droughts, fire outbreaks and downbursts. Earthquakes or hurricanes are the most frequent causes of landslides. Earthquake prone areas cover Central America and eastern Andes, while the hurricane belt stretches from Mexico to Central America, and from the Caribbean islands to Yucatan. Fire outbreaks can occur in bamboo forests of western Amazonia during extreme drought years. Forest fires occur at an interval of approximately 600 years. Downbursts occur only in Amazonia. The frequency is high in western Amazonia, low in eastern Amazonia, and local in other areas. In summary, lowland tropical moist forests here include (Prance, 1989): Lowland evergreen rain forest Semi-evergreen rain forest (seasonally dry and with slight annual shortage of soil water) Forests over limestone/ ultrabasic rock, white-sand soil, or clay soil. Amazonian transitional forests (open evergreen forest, liana forest, and bamboo forest). Ecological integrity factors for landscape context Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for landscape context of Lowland Moist Non-Flooded Broadleaf Forest Key FactorJustification for Factor SelectionEcological Thresholds: (Minimum Integrity Threshold) Justification for Threshold Determination (e.g., Natural Range of Variation)Indicators for Field-Based MonitoringFactor priorityDisturbance regimes from catastrophic natural causes, e.g. hurricanes (hurricanes occur between 10-20 degree north and south of Equator), rare catastrophic floods, or multiple landslides, or volcanism, or earthquakes, rare extreme cold fronts, rare extreme droughts. These are extremely rare events that can be very important for ecological dynamics. Create canopy gaps of great size allowing pioneer species, e.g., Cercropia sp. to colonize and initiate successional processes, e.g., hurricanes play a major role in landscape-scale dynamics of forests on Caribbean islands.Stand turnover time (the number of years to replace a particular stand of forest) for heterogeneous primary forests: 200+ years. Catastrophic disturbance events in different scales: landslides >10,000 ha, river meanders >10,000 ha, tropical storms >1,000,000 ha, Cold fronts >1,000,000 ha. Successional processes: catastrophic landslides and river overflows lead to primary succession. Due to lack of topsoil and seed banks, the successional processes will therefore take longer than catastrophes derived from tropical storms, cold fronts, and droughts. Resilience (the rate to return to pre-disturbance condition): highly resilient to disturbance if physical structure (e.g. biomass) is maintained. An estimate of fresh biomass of a forest in central Amazonia: 730.7 metric tons/ha and 255 for below-ground root systems, for a total of 985.7 metric tons/ha (cited by Lovejoy in Four neotropical rainforests).The thresholds are intuitive extrapolations made by experienced field biologists who have occasionally observed large-scale events.Identify large areas at same successional stage. Monitor the presence of species that require very large-scale disturbance e.g. extensive stands of mahogany, native bamboo or vine-dominated forest stands and associated fauna (e.g., Goeldis monkey, bamboo rat, bamboo specialized birds, insects, & frogs.)[Experts, please give a few speices names of bamboo specialized birds. Thanks.]Fire due to dry spell or prolonged dry seasons or human activities.Certain species might be maintained because of this big, very rare catastrophic event. For example, mahogany thrives on fire outbreaks.Natural fires are rare in undisturbed tropical moist forest today (Ewel, 1983), but during years of exceptionally dry season, catastrophic fires may occur. El Nio in 1998 caused an exceptionally long dry season that increased the vulnerability of forests and the intensity and spread of fires in moist forests of southern Mexico. Large-scale, drought related fire return interval in Amazonia: 400-700 years (Nepstad et al., 1996).Presence of pure stands of balsa (Ochroma lagopus), whose seeds germinate in high temperature (Whitmore, 1990) Presence of fire-sustained grasses such as: Imperata brasiliensis, Hyparrhenis rufa, Panicum sp., and Saccharum sp. Presence of palm species that are resistant to fire, e.g., thousands of hectares of monospecific stands of Attalea speciosa (=Orbignya martiana) in once speciesrich seasonal forests of southeastern Amazonia (Ewel and Bigelow, 1996). Generations of mahogany of very distinctive size categories are found in large areas between south of the Rio Amazonas and west of the Rio Tocantins. Could this be a result of fire disturbance?Background disturbances- Small gaps, small landslides, downbursts, normal cold fronts, and normal seasonal precipitation variability. Important for creating and maintaining habitat heterogeneity and species and structural diversity, preventing competitive exclusion. Drives regeneration. Stand turnover times (the number of years to replace a particular stand of forest) for heterogeneous primary forests: <200 years. Disturbance events in different scales (Denslow, 1996); The value has been pushed up a lot to be almost catastrophic. What were previously catastrophic are now more background disturbances: landslides up to 100 ha, river meanders < 100 ha, tropical storms <1,000,000 ha, cold fronts = < 1,000,000 ha. Successional processes (Ewel, 1983): -within a year after disturbance, patches of weedy herbaceous plants and vines invade the area; -from one to a few years, vines and woody pioneer species (e.g. Cecropia sp.) dominate; -from a few to 25 years, dominating pioneer species form an even-aged, nearly closed canopy; -after 25 years, tree and animal diversity increase. Growth rates of trees are highest but their wood density is lower relative to later stages. The high net primary productivity of successional forests supports a large animal population, but not the same species as a mature forest. Known forest turnover rates provide a useful baseline to assess possible increments in the occurrence of background disturbances. Identify the presence of successional vegetation dominated by high light-demanding pioneer species (site specific). [Experts, please give a few species names at specific sites as examples. Thanks.] Satellite images can be used to quantify area, distribution, and frequency of background disturbances. (Note: theres concern that these background disturbances will be taking place at a higher than normal rate.) Spatial integration and coverage (e.g., connectivity by riparian habitats) allowing migration of animals and plants outside of lowland forest. Allow to define at landscape level integrity of ecosystem. Allow to assess the extent of potential for species extinction. Spatial integration important for species to maintain contact with all habitats required for life cycles. Thresholds of size and connectivity very difficult to say,. They are function of productivity and vary depending on type of forest and what species are there. Fragmented forests with sufficient connectivity to maintain ecologically functioning system: 100,000- 1,000,000 ha. (minimum dynamic area) Landscape mosaics necessary for individual species vary: -male jaguar in Pantanal needs 90 km2, -wetland peccaries spontaneous disappearance of groups. We dont know why, but caution dictates that areas of at least 10,000 km2 are necessary for long-term survival. -Corcovado in Costa Rica, large mammals have been seen in huge herds such as jaguars, etc. It seems to have dense mammal populations for fairly small area. Corcovado forests extending to the coast with exceptionally rich resource availability, can support sizable faunal populations. Many jaguars feed on sea turtles on the beach. Those inland have largely different food habits. Montes Azules in Lacandon with 360,000 ha of forest has good representation of harpe eagles, tapirs, peccaries, and jaguars. Studies in central Amazonia show that small fragments (< 100 ha) have lower plant biomass and carbon sequestration than continuous forest (Laurance et al. 1998).Monitor wide-ranging top predators and herbivores (e.g., Heliconia butterfly occurs only on large landscapes. Monitor plants that require rare disturbance and large intact landscape. [Experts, please give a few species names as examples. Thanks.] Remote sensing like satellite imagery with time series observations. Biogeochemical dynamics (referring to regional and global processes such as global warming, ozone depletion, CO2 concentration, atmospheric and soil pollution, etc.)Affects basic ecosystem functioning at both global and local levels. Thresholds: hard to come up with numbers. Small changes are likely to be significant because expected variation is not large.Small variation from baseline can be indicative of large changes in ecosystem functioning. (It is impossible to get baseline data that doesnt reflect human intervention for these large-scale processes).Need baseline studies at global scale of mortality rates of trees, long-term measurements of growth, frequency of disease outbreaks etc.Soil type or fertility. Affects forest primary productivity and species richness. It is one of the major factors determining forest types in Amazonia. Soil type is also relevant to tree mortality rate, treefall frequency, forest regeneration mode, and stand turnover time (Hartshorn, 1990).Treefalls appear to be more frequent in the forests on clay soils (oxisols & ultisols) than on white sand soils (podzols). Stand turnover time is shorter and tree mortality rates are higher in forests on fertile soils which usually support structurally more complex and floristically more diverse forests (Hartshorn, 1990). Nutrient-poor soils with low primary productivity such as white sand soils tend to have a lower species richness of carnivorous vertebrates, insects, and scavengers (Janzen, 1983).Requires much active management. Ecological integrity factors for condition Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for condition of Lowland Moist Non-Flooded Broadleaf Forest Key FactorJustification for Factor SelectionEcological Thresholds: (Minimum Integrity Threshold) Justification for Threshold Determination (e.g., Natural Range of Variation)Indicators for Field-Based MonitoringFactor priorityDiversity of above-ground plant functional groups (species that share morphological, chemical, structural or life history characteristics) Determines the role of biodiversity in ecosystem functioning such as nutrient cycling, forest regeneration and successional patterns. Threshold: significant change in diversity of functional groups; significant change is defined relative to site- specific baseline. Life forms: life histories arranged in order of possible range of importance- criticality for to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and dynamics. Canopy and emergent trees 4,7 Climax tree species or shade-tolerant species16 Pioneer tree species or light-demander or shade-intolerant species16 Lianas and vines Epiphytes and hemiepiphytes4,7 Understory treelets or shrubs 4,7 Some life forms may be more susceptible to natural and human-induced perturbations (e.g., Palm vulnerability to cyclones in Puerto Rico [SK comments: Species of Roystonea show adaptation to Caribbean habitat by losing their leaves early in hurricanes and thus capable of withstanding strong winds without being blown down.-Henderson et al., 1995) ,vines to fire in selectively-logged forest in Amazonia, emergent trees more susceptible to high winds). This may affect other organisms (e.g. animals) and ecological processes (e.g. biotic interactions, gap regeneration). (Dirzo, 2001, in press, Orians et al. 1996) Longitudinal transects can easily be conducted to assess presence and relative abundance of keystone and representative species of each functional group. ( RRepresentative species of functional groups and life forms will be site specific. See Denslows paper for review and examples. Experts, if his paper is not the one cited in the References section Denslow, 1996, please provide the literature citation. Thanks.) Monitor presence and abundance of life forms in seed banks. Soil samples can be obtained and sieved to check seed diversity. For example, small seeds usually correspond to pioneer species and large seeds typically correspond to mature forest species. Diversity of animal functional groups Such diversity determines a number of key ecological processes such as trophic structure, nutrient cycling, systems resilience to disturbance.Threshold: significant change in diversity of functional groups; significant change is defined relative to site- specific baseline.Suggests the level of unexpected difference; in some groups major disruptions of trophic change occur (if take out top predators in some cases). Monitor the abundance of Keystone species of each functional group such as top predators and important pollinators (see pollination indicators below). Interview local communities to monitor the status of the functional groups.Community composition/ Diversity /structureAffects species diversity and several ecosystem-level processes. Several site-specific studies have calculated the relative importance value (IV) of individual species. [Experts, please provide site names and literature citation. Thanks.] Some evidence suggests that a set of species with the greatest IV may define a threshold for several aspects of ecosystem functioning (Orians et al. 1996).Species composition and diversity is the most distinguishable attribute of tropical lowland forests. Direct and indirect value of species for humans, particularly non-timber forest products (NTFP). Diversity of species and functional groups may be the most critical component of tropical forest resilience against environmental change. Presence of mosaic microhabitats in which different species co-occur, ranging from pioneer species (Cecropia spp., Balsa trees, some Ficus spp.figs) to mature forest species (Dipteryx spp, Brosimum spp., Oenocarpus bataua). Censuses on standing and fallen dead trees. These provide important resources and habitat for animals. Standing dead Palms are important nesting sites for macaws. Fallen dead trees provide habitat for beetle larvae, fungi, and many other decomposers. Censuses on diversity and abundance of canopy mixed speciesp flocks of birds. Monitor the presence and abundance of alien invasive speciesp away from human settlements. In order to monitor, develop a list of locally present exotic speciesp.Gap dynamicsProvides light, the major environmental limiting factor to plant growth in the close-canopy tropical forest, and maintains the forest in shifting mosaic steady state.16  Rate of recovery6: more rapid, if mycorrhizal fungus populations and seed sources of mature forest species are present. Annual tree mortality9: 1-2% (3% tree mortality on Barro Colorado Island in the 1983 dry season associated with El Nio.) Median tree (>10 cm dbh) longevity9: 30-50 years. Turnover Turnover rate 60-100 years in Mexico and Central America forests. Average gap size9: about 100 m2, ranging from a few m2 (e.g., branchfalls) to a few hectares. Blowdowns by downburst winds in Amazonia can be larger than 1000 ha.  Size, distribution, and timing of gaps determines the spectrum of life forms and speciesp diversity in these gapsecosystems. (site specific).- Establish line transects to check time distribution and size distribution of gaps on a periodic basis. Larger Gaps can be identified using remotely sensed images. Time series images can be used to detect changes in rates. Biotic interactions: Pollination (bees, butterflies, beetles, moths, bats, and hummingbirds) Important for reproductive success: pollinators influence the frequency and distribution pattern of plant species. Difficult to define the threshold. Necessary to study population dynamics of pollinators. Variation in species diversity of these functional groups: need to have plenty of diversity in all these groups. Is the diversity of pollinators proportional to the diversity of plant species? Is there a minimum number of pollinators? Necessary to study the complex relationships between pollinators and flowers they pollinate. Pollinators: bees are the most important group of pollinators. Bats, birds, large moths and bees can move pollen over distances of 0.1 to 1 km or more (Janzen, 1983). You need the baseline as a reference. Indicator of fruit set: Decline in fruit production (palms, figs, Brazil nuts, legumes, orchids). Fruit set in Bombacaceae is indicative of pollination by bats. Consultations with locals on fruit set. Census on bees with fragrances. Biotic interactions: seed dispersal executed by fruit-eating birds (e.g. toucans and cotingas), mammals (e.g., tapirs, peccaries, monkeys, bats, etc.) and ants.Important for reproductive success: seed dispersal agents affect food webs in tropical forests by making available reproductive resources to other consumers and Influence the frequency and distribution pattern of plant species, especially woody species. The composite seed shadow generated by the entire forest is the base of the food chain for a large number of animals (Janzen,1983).More than 60% of woody species in wet tropical forests are adapted for seed dispersal by vertebrates (Rejmnek, 1996). Difficult to define the threshold: Start monitoring on the basis of reliable knowledge. Compare with baseline to define thresholds. Check whether thresholds differ significantly from baseline. Necessary to study population dynamics of these animals. Variation in species diversity of these functional groups: need to have plenty of diversity in all these groups. Animal-generated seed shadows tend to be skewed at resting places, sleeping places or other high concentrations of animals. You need the baseline as a reference. Indicator: Censuses on charismatic frugivores (toucans, monkeys, tapirs, cotingas, kinkajous) Rate of removal of indicative fruits such as Piper spp. (dispersal by bats) Consultations with locals on abundance of frugivores. Censuses on recruitment of animal-dispersed species. Biotic interactions: seed predation (parrots, cracids, beetles, agoutis, etc). Important for reproductive success: seed predation affects population recruitment and establishment of diverse plant species (e.g. palms and legumes). Seed predators occasionally act as dispersers. Seed predation is a specialized form of herbivory. Vertebrates involved are often objects of hunting by humans.Necessary to study population dynamics of these animals. Variation in species diversity and abundance of this functional group is site specific. Threshold is unexpected change in species diversity relative to site-specific variation. Seed dispersal agents can also be seed predators. Examples include: fig wasps (Agaontidae), acting as fig florets pollinators and fig seed predators; Bairds tapir (Tapirus bairdii) a pure disperser of fig seeds, but a pure predator of Sideroxylon capiri (Sapotaceae) seeds; agouti (Dasyprocta), an important disperser and predator of Attalea palm seeds; peccaries (Tayassu) and forest-floor rodents acting as major predators of dispersed tree seeds (Janzen, 1983). You need the baseline as a reference. Consultations with locals or censuses on abundance of vertebrate seed predators (parrots & macaws, curassows, monkeys, agoutis, pacas, peccaries). Consultations with locals or censuses on abundance of insect seed predators (e.g. Bruchid Beetles are collected for food by many local populations).Biotic interactions: herbivores including insects (e.g. caterpillars, leaf-cutter ants), parasitic fungi, and vertebrates (e.g., peccaries, tapirs, deer, some monkeys).Herbivory affects vigor and mortality of plants of all sizes, especially understory seedlings, and Influences food chain and species composition of understory. Threshold: Observations that go beyond the known baseline levels of herbivory should be a warning to look at alterations in the components involved. The 10% can be considered baseline against which to assess possible outbreaks. Folivorous insects are much more important than vertebrate herbivores, and their species diversity may be dependent on plant species richness due to host-specificity. Studies (de la Cruz and Dirzo, 1987) in several forests indicate that leaf area consumed by herbivores is roughly 10%. There is considerable variation in time and among species and life forms. Studies by Coley (1982) show that insect herbivory on mature leaves of saplings of 21 canopy tree species in Barro Colorado Island is at an average annual rate of 21%. Tropical forest trees often occur at low densities or in patchy distributions. Pathogens or defoliating insects have localized rather than standwide effects. Dominant plant species however are vulnerable to standwide defoliation by specialized herbivores and pathogens. You need the baseline as a reference.Surveys of standing leaf area eaten. Elevated populations of herbivorous insects, e.g. in light traps, frass, nests, or insect activity in the forest. In the case of vertebrates: transects of sightings, quantification of animal tracks, and interviews with local communities. Biotic interactions: presence of top predators.Controls the populations of small mammals and herbivores. Army ants form an important ecological system as predators of insects and species complex that follow them (e.g., parasitic flies, birds etc.) Army ants are also critical for maintenance of vegetation structure. [Experts, please provide literature citations. Thanks.]Minimum viable size of population: need to determine population growth rate. If its >= 1 (lambda) Jaguar Population density in fairly undisturbed areas: 1/15 km2 ~ 1/64 km2 (home range of a male jaguar: 28 -168 km2) (Emmons, 1991).Preliminary data by Terborgh suggest that maintenance of top predators natural range of variation may be critical for forest structure and diversity.Absence of top predator species or population increase of small mammals. Transects of sightings, quantification of animal tracks, and interviews with local communities. To assess the condition of army ant populations and conduct censuses to determine whether an area has a full complex of ant-following birds. Sample methodologies described in Dirzo and Miranda (1990). Species diversity and composition of soil biota, e.g., mycorrhizae, fungi, microbes, soil mesofauna such as leaf-cutter ants, termites, nematodes, collembola, dung beetles, etc. Fundamental for nutrient cycling and soil structure. Threshold: Statistically significant change in diversity and abundance of soil biota. The threshold marks significant changes in ecosystem processes related to energy flow and nutrient cycling Monitoring litters decomposition and dung decomposition, censuses of termite and ant nests and their viability. Mycorrhizae would be an important indicator but requires technical expertise and equipment. Practitioners can do this after some basic training. Species diversity and composition of understory vegetation. Determine the mechanism of forest regeneration and indicate the health of successional change.Threshold will be defined by baseline and measured variation. Indicators of normal recruitment: no understory vegetation, absence of expected number of understory species, significant reduction of number of individuals in understory (pay special attention to exploited species.) Allows to detect critical situations of forest regeneration patterns. Presence of Invasive alien species such as the citrus in Chuquisaca, Bolivia. (Invasive alien faunal species such as muscoid and fruit flies in Amazonia, European honeybees (particularly africanized), and teju lizards. [Experts, please indicate scientific names of mentioned invasive alien faunal species. Thanks.] Overabundance of particular dominant species such as Brosimum alicastrum trees in Mexico and Central American forests. In the case of direct-use conservation units, a significant decline of exploited plants. Establish permanent plots to track changes in species composition that differ from baseline situations. Low Ecological integrity factors for size Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for size of Lowland Moist Non-Flooded Broadleaf Forest Key FactorsJustification for Factor SelectionEcological Thresholds: Min. Dynamic Area Desired Future Condition (Increase in MDA to Rate Good or Very Good) Justifications or Recommendations for Calculating Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA) and Desired Sizes above MDAIndicators for Field-Based MonitoringFactor PriorityExample: Mean and Maximum Fire Disturbance Area Fire is the principal disturbance regime and occurs with regularity.20,000 ha = MDA Good = 2x MDA Very Good = 3x MDA20,000 ha is the maximum recorded fire disturbance for this system; most fires affect areas smaller by a factor of 10. Considering our uncertainty about future interactions of fire and invasive species in grasslands, it is believed a buffer of 3X the minimum dynamic area is ideal (Desired Future Condition)Aerial photography at 3-5 year intervalsHigh Literature Cited Coley, P.D. 1982. Rates of herbivory on different tropical trees. In Leigh, E.G. Jr., A. S. Rand, and D.M. Windsor (eds.). The ecology of a tropical forest: seasonal rhythms and long-term changes. 2nd edition. Smithsonian Institution. 123-132. De la Cruz, M. and R. Dirzo. 1987. A survey of the standing levels of herbivory in seedlings from a Mexican rain forest. Biotropica 19: 98-106. Dirso, R. and A. Miranda. 1990. Contemporary Neotropical defaunation and forest structure, function, and diversity- a sequel to John Terborgh. Conservation Biology 4 (4): 444 447. Dirso, R., 2001. Tropical forests: biodiversity, ecological processes, and global environmental change. In Chapin, F.S. and O. E. Sala (eds.) Future biodiversity scenarios. In press. Denslow, J.S. 1996. Functional group diversity and responses to disturbance. In Orians, G.H., R. Dirzo, and J.H. Cushman (eds.) Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in tropical forests. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. Pp. 127-151. Emmons, L.H. 1991. Jaguars. In J. Seidensticker & S. Lumpkin (ed.) Great cats. Fog City Press, San Francisco. Ewel, J. 1983. Succession. In Golley, F.B. (ed.), Ecosystems of the World 14A, Tropical rain forest ecosystems: structure and function. Elsevier Scientific Publication Company, New York. Pp. 217-223. Ewel, J.J. and S.W. Bigelow. 1996. Plant life-forms and tropical ecosystem functioning. In Orians, G.H., R. Dirzo, and J.H. Cushman (eds.) Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in tropical forests. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. Pp. 101-126. Hartshorn, G.S. 1990. An overview of Neotropical forest dynamics. In Gentry, A.H. (ed.), Four Neotropical rainforests. Yale University Press, New Haven. Pp. 585-599. Henderson, A., G. Galeano, and R. Bernal. 1995. Field guide to the palms of the Americas. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Janzen, D.H. 1983. Food webs: who eats what, why, how, and with what effects in a tropical forest? In Golley, F.B. (ed.), Ecosystems of the World 14A, Tropical rain forest ecosystems: structure and function. Elsevier Scientific Publication Company, New York. Pp. 167-182. Laurance, W. F. & R. O. Bierregaard. 1997. Tropical forest remnants: ecology, management and conservation of fragmented communities. University of Chicago Press. Nepstad, D.C., P.R. Moutinho, C. Uhl, I.C. Vieira, and J.M.C. da Silva. 1996. The ecological importance of forest remnants in an eastern Amazonian frontier landscape. In Schelhas, J. and R. Greenberg (eds.) Forest patches in tropical landscape. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Pp.133-150. Por, F.D. 1992. Sooretame, the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil. The Hague: SPB Academic Publishing. Prance, G.T. 1989. American tropical forests. In Lieth, H. and M.J.A. Werger (eds). Ecosystems of the World 14B. Tropical rain forest ecosystems: biogeographical and ecological studies. Elsevier Scientific Publication Co., New York. Pp. 99-132 Rejmnek, M. 1996. Species richness and resistance to invasions. In Orians, G. H., R. Dirzo, and J.H. Cushman (eds.) Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in tropical forests. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. Pp. 153-172. Whitmore, T.C. 1990. An introduction to tropical rain forests. Oxford York University Press, New York. Additional resources Challenger, A. 1998. Utilizacin y conservacin: de los ecosistemas terrestres de Mxico, pasado, presente y futuro. CONABIO. Condit, R. 1997. Forest turnover, diversity, and CO2. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12: 249-250. Gentry, A.H. (ed.), 1990. Four Neotropical rainforests. Yale University Press, New Haven. Hunter, M.L.(ed.), 1999. Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems. Cambridge University Press. Laurance, W. F. and R. O. Bierregaard. 1997. Tropical forest remnants: ecology, management and conservation of fragmented communities. University of Chicago Press. Malhi, Y. & Grace, J. 2000. Tropical forests and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15: 332-337. McDade, L.A. et al. (eds.), 1994. La Selva. 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