ࡱ> npklm@ objbj "uug&&&&&&&:BBBBT:?<vvvvvvvv${Rl&~vv~~&&vv^^^~&v&v^~^^&&^vj ૗iGB R^< 0?^9^9^::&&&&9&^$v 8^0ĩvvv::DID^::I4Terrestrial habitat types 4.4. Montane cloud forest General description and geographic variation Cloud forests are easily distinguishable from other forest types by the abundance of epiphytes and reduction in woody climbers. Epiphytes such as bryophytes (liverworts and mosses), ferns and allies, and flowering plants (mainly Bromeliaceae, Orchidaceae and Araceae) are significant in both species diversity and biomass (Luteyn and Churchill, 2000). With increasing elevation, the canopy height of cloud forests is lower than that of lowland forests; trees exhibit compact crowns and gnarled trunks; buttresses, lianas, palms, and leaves tend to be smaller, thicker, and harder, apparently an adaptation to suppressed transpiration due to high atmospheric moisture (Bruijnzeel and Proctor, 1995). The geographic distribution of cloud forests is here used to represent the entire geographic distribution of montane broadleaf forest. Neotropical cloud forests extend from 230N to 250S, roughly from mid-Mexico to northwestern Argentina. The typical cloud forest, humid and dense, is generally found on mountain ranges, from 1000 to 3000 m, with relatively continuous cloud covers at the vegetation level, blanketing the forest. The northernmost stand of cloud forest appears to be the Rancho del Cielo, at 230N in the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico, between 1000 and 1500m. The southernmost cloud forest located at approximately 250S in tropical northwestern Argentina (Webster, 1995). According to Webster (1995), major cloud forest biogeographical regions are (1) cis-Tehuantepec Mexico (Tamaulipas to Oaxaca and Vera Cruz), (2) trans-Tehuentepec Mexico (Chiapas and Tabasco) and northern Central America (Guatemala to Nicaragua), (3) Costa Rica and western Panama, (4) northern Andes (Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador), (5) central Andes (Peru and northern Bolivia), (6) southern Andes (southern Bolivia, Argentina and Chile), (7) coastal ranges of southeastern Brazil, (8) Guayana Highlands, (9) coastal Venezuelan ranges, (10) West Indies (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and the highest peaks of the Lesser Antilles). In Mexico, cloud forests generally appear as isolated patches and are surrounded by xeric vegetation. Cloud forests are most extensive and species diverse in the northern Andes (Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador), where they form vegetation belts between lowland rain forests and elfin forests or pramos. In the southern Andes (southern Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile) they grade into temperate rain forests or puna (Luteyn and Churchill, 2000; Webster, 1995). In the northern Andes there are cloud forests on both western and eastern slopes. Increasing aridity south from the equator limits cloud forests to an ever narrower band on the western slope. South of 70S, forests are restricted to isolated zones that are climatically buffered, and the predominant slope vegetation becomes chaparrals, thorn scrubs and deserts (Davis et al., 1997). The available data set from fifty-three 0.l-ha sample plots shows that Andean forests are floristically similar to lowland Amazonian forests up to 1500 m. Species of Lauraceae, followed by Melastomataceae and Rubiaceae, are predominant woody floristic elements of Andean forests between 1500 and 2900 m. Floristically, Central American montane forests differ from Andean forests in their greater numbers of Laurasian (Northern Hemisphere) taxa (Gentry, 1995). Many botanists consider the montane forest of the northern Andes a region of exceptional biological diversity, greater than that of the Amazon basin (Webster, 1995). In eastern Peru, major altitudinal changes in species composition of birds, bats, mice and flora are found at around 1500 m (Young and Len, 1999); this altitudinal threshold may be repeated in other localities. Recent studies reveal that the eastern slope of the tropical Andes has the highest bird diversity in the world, with most species found near the Equator. Information on endemic and threatened birds in the worlds tropical montane forests indicates that South America has the highest proportion of restricted-range species confined to cloud forest habitats. Species that are regional endemics and restricted to cloud forest habitats are listed in Table 3 (Long, 1995). Mammal diversity, too, is high in cloud forests. Some threatened mammals of cloud forests are listed in Table 4 (Eisenberg, 1989). Community types/zonation and major gradients within the system (patterns) On tropical mountains, montane forest vegetation forms distinguishable zonation along elevation gradients, from about 600 to1500m to a range between 3000 and 3800m. Ecologists recognize three vegetation belts within montane forests: lower montane rain forest, upper montane rain forest (cloud forest), and subalpine rain forest. Table 1 compares the salient features of the three vegetation belts of montane broadleaf forest, lower montane rain forest, upper montane rain forest, and subalpine rain forest, mentioned in Luteyn & Churchill (2000) and Webster (1995). Synonyms for the three vegetation belts are listed in Table 2. Table 1. FeaturesLower montane rain forestUpper montante rain forestSubalpine rain forestAltitudinal range500 2500 m2500 3500 m3500 4000 mMean annual temperature20-120C12 60C8 50C Mean annual precipitation1000 5000 mm1500 2000 mm (with relative humidity > 90%)1000 2000 mmCanopy height15 - 45 m20-30 m12 20 m StrataTwoOne or twoOneButtresses & stilt roots on treesInfrequentRare noneNoneCauliflory Infrequent (few bat-pollinated species)Rare noneNoneDrip tips on leavesFrequentRare noneNoneDominant leaf-size class of trees and shrubsMesophyll (2000 18000 mm2)Microphyll (200 2000 mm2)Nanophyll (20 -200 mm2)Vascular epiphytesAbundantAbundantOccasionalNonvascular epiphytesOccasionalAbundantAbundantCharacteristic montane forests taxaLaurasian (northern hemispere) taxa: Aquifoliaceae, Buddleiaceae, Clethraceae, Cyrillaceae, Illiciaceae, Magnoliaceae, Rhamnaceae, Sabiaceae, Staphyleac eae, Styracaceae, Symplocaceae. Gondwana (southern hemisphere) taxa: Bromeliaceae, Brunelliaceae, Lobeliaceae Clusiaceae, Cyclanthaceae, Hymenophyllopsidaceae, Melastomataceae, Metaxyaceae, Myrtaceae.Holarctic taxa: Berberidaceae, Betulaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Cornaceae, Ericaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Juglandaceae, Myricaceae, Rosaceae, Ulmaceae. Antarctic taxa: Cunoniaceae, Dicksoniaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Escalloniaceae, Loxsomataceae, Lophosoriaceae, Podocarpaceae, WinteraceaeBamboos, Coriaria, Drimys, Gaultheria, Weinmannia, PolylepisPlant endemism MediumHighLow Table 2. Synonyms for the three vegetation belts of montane forests. Montane Forest SystemSynonymsLower montane rain forestPremontane forest, paratropical forest, selva submacrotermica, selva mesotermica, tierra templada, subandean rain forest, mist forest, bosque montano inferior (Colombia), yungas (Bolivia), laurel forest of northern Argentina.Upper montane rain forestSelva andina, selva pluvial, submesotermica, tierra fria, cloud forest, bosque montano superior (Colombia), ceja (Colombia), medio yungas (Bolivia), nogal-pino forest (Argentina)Subalpine rain forestBosque andino, mata andina, ceja andina, ceja de monte Table 3. Reported threatened bird species that are regional endemics and restricted to cloud forest habitats. Scientific NameCommon NameRegion (country)NotesDendroica angelaeElfin-woods WarblerCaribbean (Puerto Rico)Amazona imperialisImperial ParrotCaribbean (Dominica)Population < 100 in 1992Leucopeza semperiSempers WarblerCaribbean (St. Lucia)Not found recentlyOreophasis derbianusHorned GuanCentral AmericaOtus clarkiiBare-shanked Screech OwlCentral AmericaMargarornis bellulusBeautiful TreehunterCentral AmericaChlorospingus inornatusPirre Bush TanagerCentral AmericaChlorospingus tacarcunaeTacarcuna Bush TanagerCentral AmericaCampylopterus ensipennisWhite-tailed SabrewingSouth America (Venezuela, Tobago)Vulnerable/ Rare (IUCN)Hylonympha macrocercaScissor-tailed HummingbirdSouth America (Paria Penisula, Venezuela)Vulnerable/ Rare (IUCN)Premnoplex tateiWhite-throated BarbtailSouth AmericaBasileuterus griseicepsGrey-headed WarblerSouth America (Cordillera de Caripe, Venezuela)Endangered (IUCN) Myioborus pariaeYellow-faced RedstartSouth America (Paria Penisula, Venezuela)Endangered (IUCN)Pauxi pauxiHelmeted CurassowSouth America (Venezuela, Colombia)Endangered (IUCN)Grallaria chthoniaTachra AntpittaSouth America (Venezuela)Endangered (IUCN)Grallaricula cucullata Hooded AntpittaSouth AmericaGrallaria kaestneriCundinamarca AntpittaSouth AmericaAglaiocercus coelestisViolet-tailed SylphSouth AmericaBangsia aureocinctaGold-ringed TanagerSouth AmericaPyrrhura orcesiEl Oro ParakeetSouth AmericaXenoglaux loweryiLong-whiskered OwletSouth AmericaAulacorhynchus huallagaeYellow-browed ToucanetSouth America (Departments of San Martn and La Libertad, Peru)Grallaria blakeiChestnut AntpittaSouth AmericaGrallaria carrikeriPale-billed AntipittaSouth AmericaGrallaria przewalskiiRusty-tinged AntpittaSouth AmericaScytalopus macropusLarge-footed TapaculoSouth AmericaHemispingus rufosuperciliarisRufous-browed HemispingusSouth AmericaOtus marshalliCloud-forest Screech OwlSouth AmericaAndigena cucullataHooded Mountain-toucanSouth AmericaHapalopsittaca fuertesiAzure-winged ParrotSouth America (Colombia, Ecuador)Endangered (IUCN)Hapalopsittaca pyrrhopsRed-faced ParrotSouth America (Peru)Endangered (IUCN)Eriocnemis nigrivestisBlack-breasted PufflegSouth America (Colombia, Ecuador)Endangered (IUCN)Grallaria milleriBrown-banded AntpittaSouth America (Colombia, Ecuador)Endangered / Extinct (IUCN) Table 4. Some reported threatened mammals of cloud forest. Scientific NameCommon NameDistributionTremarctos ornatusAndean bearFrom Panama through Peru to BoliviaTapirus pinchaqueWoolly tapirIn pramos and cloud forests of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru Lagothrix flavicaudaYellow-tailed woolly monkeyIn Intact montane forests above 2000 m in Ecuador Departments of Amazonas and San Martn, Peru Aotus miconaxNight monkeyAmazonas, Peru Ecological integrity factors for landscape context Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for landscape context of montane cloud forest Key FactorsJustification for Factor SelectionMin. Integrity Threshold(s) Justification for Threshold Determination (e.g., Natural Range of Variation)Indicators for Field-Based MonitoringFactor PriorityClimate Regime (vertical and horizontal precipitation, temperature)Determines the occurrence and distribution of dominant flora and sets the boundaries for cloud forest vegetation type.More than 1,000 mm annual rainfall (without including horizontal precipitation) Horizontal precipitation (mist/cloud): 5-20% or more of annual rainfall ( Bruijnzeel and Proctor, 1995) Maximum # of days without clouds. [Experts, please provide an estimate of max. # of days without clouds or literature citation. Thanks.] Evapotranspiration rate: 570-770 mm/year (Bruijnzeel and Proctor, 1995). Mean annual temperature: 8-220CAbundance of epiphytes (bryophytes or lichens). Observations of clouds. Measurement of desiccation of mosses and bryophytes.Topography Relief (slope position and stability) and landslide regime Slope position can influence the characteristics of cloud forests Slope stability determines the frequency of landslides triggered by earthquakes and high rainfalls (Stern, 1995). Landslide regime in turn determines landslide disturbance patterns and creates landscape heterogeneitySlope position: e.g., on a convex or concave slope, or on a cliff, a ridge or in a riverine. The tallest cloud forests are often found on mid-slope with moderate steepness moderate and relatively deep soils (Young and Len, 1999). Slope position can influence the characteristics of cloud forests Monitoring landslide factors: date of occurrence, causes, size of affected area, direction of landslide.Dynamics of tree falls or branch fallsMaintain the diversity and composition of species and forest vertical structure Branch falls and tree falls provide appropriate seed bed conditionsForest canopy turnover rates: 50 -300 years (Kappelle et al, 1996b). If forest canopy turnover rate is too high, then we prevent adequate development of big trees and the structural diversity that supports various life forms such as epiphytes.Presence of abundant lianas, dead trees, fallen woody materials, tip-ups, seedlings and saplings indicate that forest canopy turnover rate is very high.Succession after disturbance (wind, hurricanes, landslides).Increases heterogeneity of vegetation structure and between-habitat (beta) diversity, important for patch dynamics. Pioneer species vary accordingly to different sites (e.g., shade-intolerant colonizing species, Blechnum, Equisetum, Piper, Baccharis, Senecio, Miconia, Chusquea, are found on Pasochoa Volcano, Ecuador (Stern, 1995). For example, one year after disturbance, check the growth of native plants (in meter) and the presence or absence of exotic plants. It is the time to check whether all the pioneer species are native.Connectivity with montane forest systems or other natural systems. Important for gene flow, seeds dispersion, faunas daily and seasonal migrations. Estimate the distance threshold between two forest fragments. [Experts, please provide concrete examples of distance thresholds from sites you know or from literature. Thanks. Maarten Kappelle: This really depends on the species; there is no info yet available.] Presence of species (e.g., monkeys and large predators) that use other ecosystems.See Thomas van der Hammen (unpublished)- Proyecto demonstrativo de restauracin en Sabana de Bogot, Colombia. Eileen Helmer, Costa Rica/Puerto Rico mapas de fragmentos de bosque de montaa (Helmer, 2000). Produce forest maps and perform analysis of fragmentation and fragment configuration. Studies of indicator species e.g., Oak trees (Quercus), Jaguars (Felis). Presence of populations of indicator or sensitive species (e.g., Coyote, Canis letrans, can be an indicator of fragmentation in Central America.) Evidence of human activities in the area.Hydrological regime and fluvial dynamics Along with the vegetation cover and structure, hydrological regime and fluvial dynamics determine the water yield and runoff rates. Water yield: annual streamflow totals = XX% of annual precipitation Run-off rate: XX See references: Hunzinger, Argentina 1997, Moutain Research and Development [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks.];, Veneklaas PhD thesis, International Journal of Hydrology, Journal of Tropical Ecology, Zadroga (1981), and Bruijnzeel and Proctor (1995). Indicators of change in hydrologic regime such as water quantity, discharge, sediment load, and period of inundation.  Ecological integrity factors for condition Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for condition of montane cloud forest Key FactorsJustification for Factor SelectionEcological Thresholds: Min. Dynamic Area Desired Future Condition (Increase in MDA to Rate Good or Very Good) Justifications or Recommendations for Calculating Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA) and Desired Sizes above MDAIndicators for Field-Based MonitoringFactor PriorityViable populations of carnivores (important carnivores include jaguar, Panthera onca; puma, Puma concolor ; yaguarondi , Herpailunus yaguarondi; Andean bear, Tremarctos ornatus; tayra, Eira barbara; weasels, Mustela spp. , and hog-nosed skunks, Conepatus spp.)Regulate the populations of small mammals, and impact food chain Control the density, distribution, and condition of rodents that might harm plant populations.Minimum population sizes of Felis spp. that control rodent communities. [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.]Fecal transects of Felis spp. Community-based hunting recordsViable populations of evergreen treesMaintain the continuous accumulation of leaf litter due to partial defoliation.Minimum population sizes of evergreen trees. [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.]Record the depth of the leaf litter layer at regular time intervals. Viable populations of pollinatorsRegulate pollination of pioneer, secondary and primary forest tree, shrub and herb species.Minimum population sizes of insects, hummingbirds and bats. [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.]A few pollination studies in cloud forests suggest a decreasing abundance and diversity of bees and lepidopterans and increasing plant taxa adapted to dipteran and hummingbird pollination at higher elevation. For example, hummingbirds Trochilinae, abundant in cloud forests at 1000 2000 m, are important pollinators for Centropogon, Fuchsia, Vaccinieae, and bromeliads; the dipterans important for Pleurothallid orchids (Webster, 1995).Observational censuses at regular time intervals. Viable populations of epiphytes Important for processes of mutualism and symbiosis e.g., bromelia tanks support tadpoles and insects. Generate tree and branch fall gaps due to mechanical abrasion as a result of heavy weight on tree branches and trunks, and maintain habitats for e.g. frogs. Maintain the natural hydrologic regime: retain water and avoid run-off and soil erosion, and thus reduce upslope soil loss and downslope flooding in lowlands.Minimum population sizes of epiphytes in general. Minimum population sizes of tank bromeliads, mosses and hepatics. [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.]Estimate epiphytes (e.g., bromeliads) abundance and biomass at regular time intervals. Presence of sensitive species or species susceptible to changes (e.g., amphibians). Estimate forest edge run-off at regular time intervals.Viable populations of frugivorous and granivorous species Regulate seed dispersal of pioneer, secondary and primary forest tree and shrub species.Minimum population sizes of frugivorous and granivorous species. See Nadkarni and Wheelwright (2000) for quetzal and Lauraceae. also Guatemala, various papers in Biotropica, Carolina Murcia. [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks.] Observational censuses at regular time intervals. Viable populations of 'key' species (e.g. species of Lauraceae).Maintain food availability in times of food scarcity, for a variety of species groups (birds, rodents, etc.) and maintain seasonal species migration routesMinimum population sizes of key species (e.g. lauraceous spp.). See Nadkarni and Wheelwright (2000) for quetzal and Lauraceae. Tree species inventories and phenological records at regular time intervals Viable populations of mycorrhiza Maintain decomposition and symbiotic relations with key tree species such as oaksMinimum population sizes of mycorrhiza. Monteverde, Muller and Halling. [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks.Record the presence of mycorrhiza at regular time intervals. Presence of mycorrhiza on top soil. [Experts, please verify. Thanks.]Viable populations of herbivores and decomposers. Maintain the nutrient availability to species at ground level in closed forest.Minimum population sizes of herbivores and decomposers. [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.]Censuses of herbivores and decomposers at regular time intervals. Vegetation structure (size/age classes, strata)Provide the diversity of microhabitats and niches within the vegetation. Jaime Cavelier Bosques de alizo comparado con plantaciones. [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks. ]Measure the complexity- # of stratus, # of life forms, structure and size, # of functional groups, # of guilds. Ecological integrity factors for size Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for size of montane cloud forest Key FactorsJustification for Factor SelectionEcological Thresholds: Min. Dynamic Area Desired Future Condition (Increase in MDA to Rate Good or Very Good) Justifications or Recommendations for Calculating Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA) and Desired Sizes above MDAIndicators for Field-Based MonitoringFactor PriorityEXAMPLE: Minimum Dynamic AreaMuch geographical variation.Consider the average size of primary disturbance (e.g., landslides, storms, etc.) and the average return intervals. Buffer this by a multiplier depending on the confidence in your data and the variability of the key factor attributes (size, return interval, etc) around the geometric mean. Information gaps and caveats There is a major gap in information on the natural range of variation and integrity thresholds of key factors. Recommended priorities for conservation-driven research agenda and next steps We should orient our efforts on restoring secondary forests and agroecosystems, creating new reserves and establishing biological corredors (Brown, A.D. & M. Kappelle. 2001. Introduccin a los Bosques Nublados del Neotrpico: Una Sntesis Regional. In: M. Kappelle & A.D. Brown, eds., Bosques Nublados del Neotrpico.). Literature Cited Bruijnzeel, L. A. and J. Proctor. 1995. Hydrology and biogeochemistry of tropical montane forests: what do we really know? Pp. 38-78. In L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F.N. Scatena (eds.) Tropical montane cloud forests. Springer-Verlag, New York. Cavelier, Jaime. Year? - Bosques de alizo comparado con plantaciones. Davis, S.D., V.H. Heywood, O. Herrera-MacBryde, J. Villalobos, and A.C. Hamilton (eds.) Centers of plant diversity: a guide and strategy for their conservation. Volume3, The Americas. World Wide Fund for Nature and World Conservation Union, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Eisenberg, J.F. 1989. Mammals of the Neotropics. The Northern Neotropics. Volume 1: Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. Gentry, A. H. 1995. Patterns of diversity and floristic composition in Neotropical montane forests. p.103-126. In S.P. Churchill, H. Balslev, Churchill, S. P., H. Balslev, E. Forero and J.L. Luteyn (eds.). Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx. Guariguata, Manuel. Year? Helmer, E.H. 2000. The landscape ecology of tropical secondary forest in montane Costa Rica. Ecosystems 3: 98-114. Hunzinger, Argentina? 1997. Moutain Research and Development Kappelle, M. 1996a. Los Bosques de Roble (Quercus) de la Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica: Biodiversidad, Ecologa, Conservacin y Desarrollo. Universidad de Amsterdam y Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio). Amsterdam - Santo Domingo de Heredia. 336 pp. Kappelle, M., T. Geuze, M. Leal y A.M. Cleef. 1996b. Successional age and forest structure in a Costa Rican upper montane Quercus forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 12: 681-698. Long, A. J. 1995. The importance of tropical montane cloud forests for endemic and threatened birds. Pp. 79-106. In L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F.N. Scatena (eds.) Tropical montane cloud forests. Springer-Verlag, New York. Luteyn, J. L. and S. P. Churchill. 2000. Vegetation of the tropical Andes. Pp. 281-310. In D. L. Lentz (ed.) Imperfect balance: landscape transformations in the Precolumbian Americas. Columbia University Press, New York. Muller and Halling. ? Monteverde. Murcia, Carolina. Year? various papers in Biotropica ? Myster, Randy reference ? Nadkarni, N.M. & N.T. Wheelwright 2000. Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest. Oxford University Press. New York. Stern, M.J. 1995. An inter-Andean forest relict: vegetation change on Pasochoa Volcano, Ecuador. Mountain Research and Development. Vol. 15 (4): 339-348. Van der Hammen, Thomas (unpublished) Year? Proyecto demonstrativo de restauracin en Sabana de Bogot, Colombia. Veneklaas, E.J. 1990. Rainfall Interception and Aboveground Nutrient Fluxes in Colombian Montane Tropical Rain Forest. Ph.D.Thesis. University of Utrecht. 109 pp. Webster, G.L. 1995. The panorama of Neotropical cloud forests. Pages 53-77. In S.P. Churchill, H. Balslev, E. Forero, & J.L. Luteyn (eds.). Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx. Young, K.R. and B. Len 1999. Perus humid eastern montane forests: an overview of their physical settings, biological diversity, human use and settlement, and conservation needs. 97 pp. DIVA, Technical Report no 5. Zadroga, F. 1981. The hydrological importance of a montane cloud forest area of Costa Rica. Pp. 59-73. In R. Lal y E.W. Russell, eds., Tropical Agricultural Hydrology. J. Wiley y Sons. Ecoandes book Volume 1? Recommended resources Churchill, S.P., H. Balslev, E. Forero & J.L. Luteyn. 1995. Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests. The New York Botanical Garden. New York. 702 pp. Grau, A. & A.D. Brown 2000. Development threats to biodiversity and opportunities for conservation in the mountain ranges of the upper Bermejo river basin, NW Argentina and SW Bolivia. Ambio 29: 445-450. Grau, H. R. & T.T. Veblen 2000. Rainfall variability, fire and vegetation dynamics in neotropical montane ecosystems in north-western Argentina. Journal of Biogeography 27: 1107-1121. KAPPELLE, M. & A.D. BROWN. 2001(in press). Bosques Nublados del Neotrpico. INBio IUCN FUA. Editorial INBio. Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica. c. 702 pp. Hamilton, L.S. 1995. Montane cloud forest conservation and research: a synopsis. Mountain Research and Development 15: 259-266. Hamilton, L.S., J.O. Jurik and F.N. Scatena (eds.). 1995. Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Ecological Studies 110, Springer Verlag, New York. Nadkarni, N.M. & N.T. Wheelwright 2000. Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest. Oxford University Press. New York. Stadtmuller, T. 1987. Los Bosques Nublados en el Trpico Hmedo. University of the United Nations (Tokyo) and Centro Agronmico Tropical de Investigacin y Enseanza CATIE. Turrialba. 85 pp. Soma. D & Perovic, P. 1999. Planificacin regional de la conservacin en los bosques montanos del noroeste Argentina. En Matteucci, Morelo, Solbrig, Eds. [Experts, please provide the title and publisher of the edited book. 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