ࡱ> @ 'bjbj "uu'xYYYY,0Y<0Z0Z0Z0Z0Z0Z0Z0Z$ϋR!l8y0Z0Zyy80Z0ZMbbbyn0Z0Zbybbb0Z$Z p%nGY6,bc0bbbb$0Z Beb*mT~sJ0Z0Z0Z88*/*b/4Terrestrial habitat types 4.5. Dry forest General description and geographic variation Tropical dry forests generally have high temperatures throughout the year, an annual precipitation of less than 1,600 mm with one or two long and pronounced dry seasons. The duration and intensity of drought govern the distribution of dry forests. Physiognomically, dry forests during the rainy season are often similar to tropical humid forests but are generally shorter in stature, lower in biomass, diversity, density of epipyhtes and lianas. However, they are rich in habitat diversity (Frankie, 1997). Typically, tropical dry forests have ca. 50-70 species greater than 7.5 cm DBH in 0.1 ha sample plots. In some of the most arid tropical dry forests, monospecific stands can occur (e.g. Loxopterygium huasango in Tumbes, Peru). Tropical dry forests usually have a high level of endemism. They grow on soils of significantly higher fertility than savannas, usually have a closed canopy with woody floras dominated by Leguminosae and Bignoniaceae and a sparse ground flora with few grasses. Floristically, there is a greater richness and abundance of species of Capparidaceae, Cactaceae, Erythroxylaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Malvaceae, Lamiaceae, and Leguminosae. Common genera include Acacia, Caesalpinia, Cassia, Mimosa, Tabebuia, Capparis, Byrsonima, Lysiloma, Ceiba, Aspidosperma, and Erythroxylon. Most of the woody plants in dry forests are deciduous (Daly & Mitchell, 2000; Pennington et al., 2000). Most woody plants in riparian habitats of dry forests are functionally evergreen (Frankie et al., 1974). Dry forests occur along the Pacific coast of Mesoamerica, from Mxico to Costa Rica (Guanacaste Province), and also on the Yucatn Peninsula. In South America dry forests dominate the Caribbean coast of Colombia and Venezuela (Provincia Guajira of Cabrera & Willink, 1980), the Pacific coast of northern Peru (Departamento Tumbes) and southern Ecuador, the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil, the Chiquitana region of Bolivia, and the Gran Chaco of SE Bolivia, W Paraguay and north-central Argentina. Parts of the dry forest ecosystem are the piedmont forests of NW Argentina and SW Bolivia, Paran subtropical semideciduous forests in southern Brazil (W of States of Sao Paulo, Paran and Santa Catarina), eastern Paraguay and NE Argentina. Dry forests are also found in Cuba and other Caribbean islands. (Note: For this workshop, we excluded mezquitales, matorrales" and valles secos interandinos.) Community types/zonation and major gradients within the system (patterns) Carmen Josse: Gradientes como humedad y disturbio tambien son importantes en los bosques secos. En el caso de alteraciones antropogenicas frecuentes y de larga historia, hay una tendencia hacia los tipos de matorral, es decir que el bosque poco a poco cambia su estructura y las formas arbustivas empiezan a dominar. Este no es el caso de las quemas, sino de alteraciones como tala selectiva, claro para parcelas agrcolas, y cierto grado de ganadera. Cuando la ganadera se vuelve mas intensa y hay quemas involucradas, estos bosques tienden a convertirse en sabanas. La humedad puede ser un factor importante para la diversidad de comunidades y el gradiente puede darse tanto con relacin a ros y bosques de galera (fuentes de agua), como con relacin a la presencia de cerros que por su posicin captan humedad atmosfrica. Cuando es as, pequeas diferencias de altitud pueden traer importantes cambios en composicin y estructura. Ecological integrity factors for landscape context Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for landscape context of dry forest Factores ClaveJustificacin para el Factor de SeleccinUmbral Ecolgico: (Umbral de Integridad Mnimo) Justificacin para Umbral de Determinacin (Ej. Rango Natural de Variacin)Indicadores para Monitoreo de CampoFactor De PrioridadHabitats MosaicIt is important to maintain the diversity of animals and plants that use different habitats, but also for special organisms that use a specific type of habitat. It is required to have large areas of dry forest that maintain sufficient patches of the different habitats of sufficient size to maintain the diversity of vertebrates that require different habitats through their cycle of life. This mosaic is maintained by diverse factors as edafics, hydrologic, topographical, precipitation, natural perturbations and anthropogenics. It is necessary that the managers establish their base line in relation to the mosaics, identifying and characterizing the different habitats, for the purpose of monitoring their changes in the time.Connectivity and fragmentationIt is important for species that require large areas to maintain ecologically functional populations as carnivorous and large herbivorous . Migratory animals (Lat.): butterflies, bats, births of north Mexico or America Central (warblers, flycatchers). High (elevated) migration: butterflies, bats, and hummingbird. Marine turtles that use the bays of the coastal dry forest. Continuous and gradient of vegetation? It is required to maintain the connectivity toward inside the dry forest (for example among patches of the same habitat, toward springs, bodies of water separated). Also it is necessary the connectivity for species that present high (elevated) migrations. This conectivity should be maintained toward other systems. In Caatinga exist species that require free water during all year, of such form that they perform migrations toward higher parts ('brejos') in the epoch of dryness.Monitoring changes of use of the soil and habitats fragmentation of infrastructure of roads, mining, hydraulic, etc. Some possible species of monitoring to evaluate the functional connectivity of the system are: jaguar, lipped peccary, and some greedy birds . Nutrients cycleOur group does not possess sufficient experience to develop this factor, although we consider important to mention it. History of human use The Spanish conquerors founded its first cities (many of them are today the capital of Latin America, for example in America Central) upon lands occupied originally by the dry forests. This enlarged its use for firewood or of the ground for agriculture (its soils are the most fertile of the tropics!), and accelerated the destruction and almost disappearance, to times, of this ecosystem.Decrease of the area occupied by these forests by deforestation; disappearance of endemism; lack of new collections of indicator species in the national and regionals herbals.Precipitation Regime In this system the rain is seasonal and predictible up to a point. In these systems also long periods of droughts can be seen. In this way a determinant factor in the structure of the forest is the duration of those periods of drought.Related to climatic change and should be evaluated to a global or regional level.Local rainfall patterns Rainfall patterns from a regional level in a long term. Change evaluation in relation to global phenomenas. Example: El NioFire RegimeThe Dry Forests are not modeling by fires. Their presence can have essential effects. The presence of exotic species such as gramineas (ej. Melinis minutiflora, Hyparrhenia rufa) increases the frequency and intensity of fires in the Dry Forest. [Darin Prado: Attention: Hyparrhenia rufa is not exotic in Brazil, where the botanical type was collected, and asked me if it was in the rest of Latin America.]A dense cover of exotic species (as the buffalo grass in the Sonorense Forest [Experts, please you indicate you the scientific name of "zacate buffel." Thanks.] and the jaragua grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) in Costa Rica (to see Frankie et al., 1997) exceed the threshold [Experts, if you know of any published studies on this specific threshold, please cite. Thanks.] and provokes a change in the composition and structure of the forest.Monitoring of exotic cover. Fire frequency. Monitoring of composition and structure of vegetation burned areas and associated or key fauna. Underground water regimeAvailability of water for deep plants of roots. Maintain springs and dependent bodies of water of the water of the under ground water. These bodies of water are important for aquatic species of flora and fauna - endemic, migratory and native, especially during epochs of droughts.The decrease of the aquiferous below the reach of the most susceptible roots, but are fed from underground water. The drop of the sufficient phreatic level to feed the springs and other dependent bodies of water of springs.Note: The knowledge related to the subsoil water plants dependence is limited. With springs a rank doesnt exists, just the presence or absence of the spring. Monitoring of the phreatic level in wells. Monitoring the changes effect of the phreatic level upon plants and dependent bodies of water of the subsoil water. Hydrologic regime and galery forest connectivityThe maintenance of the integrity of the riparian hbitats is highly dependent of the superficial water flow states. These riparian habitats are runners inside the forest for birds and other animals. The "flash floods" (quick floods provoked by heavy rains) accelerate the processes of erosion when the original vegetable cover has diminished . In the areas of Costa Rica dry forest, the riparian habitats provide accommodation to twice thediversity than the remainder of the forest, this is due to the availability of water, food and refuge and areas of nesting. It is necessary that the managers consider the protection of large trees as of the thicket forest in these habitats.It is necessary to conserve the original structure of the riparian habitats. The riparian habitats are very susceptible to stockbreeding since although the large trees are maintained, small species are lost; also in these places is common to observe the substitution of native trees by exotic fruit trees. Another possible impact is provoked by the development of roads infrastructure that from time to time obstruct the free flow of the water; in these cases is necessary the construction of drains. When the wide of the riparian corridor is diminished for establishment of grazing land, clearing of trees or by cutting them, increase the hydraulic processes of erosion and aeloic, and increase the vulnerability of the trees before the effect of the wind.There is a need to know the minimum width required by these habitats to consider them functional, [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.] since in many countries exist laws that set the minimum width acceptable under arbitrary criteria. Connection to systems of dry forest and adjacent mountain: water, gradient or elevation. Ecological integrity factors for condition Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for condition of dry forest Key Factors Justification for SelectionEcological Thresholds: (Minimum Integrity Threshold) Justification for Threshold Determination (e.g., Natural Range of Variation)Indicators for Field-Based MonitoringFactor PriorityDepredation upon large herbivorous Is important because of its effect upon the composition and structure of the vegetation and as source of food for local people (for example through systems of populations, source, and drain) and native predators. In general terms populations of herbivorous are under their ideal carrying capacity. The carrying capacity capacity of large herbivorous would be able to become 10 times higher in dry forests that in humid forests. This index has been measured in the National Park Kaa-iya in Bolivia and in the Chiquitana (Estancia San Miguelito). Monitoring densities of large herbivorous (metodology of Andrew Noss, et.al.) [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks.]Presence of Large Carnivorous Important to maintain populations of species of low level in the trophic chain.In general terms the populations of large carnivorous are very diminished.Information gap: is difficult to establish the minimum levels of threshold.Monitoring of carnivorous through the metodology of the handbook WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society) at present in development. Changes in soil strutureSeed bank of short duration Breeding season/ Phenology -Seeds -Fishes -Bees -ReptilsNon-sexual reproductionPolinization: specially bees, moths, and bats. The majority of the woody and succulent plants are dioecious and/or hermaphrodites and auto-incompatibles, that bloom in certain periods of the dry season or rain season, and therefore they depend on the pollinators for their sexual reproduction. Particularly in dry forests the bees are an important group of pollinators (in America Central around the 70% of the plants are pollinized by bees). In general, large bees build nests in dry season and small bees during two seasons of the year. Other important nocturnal pollinators are bats and small and large moths (Sphingidae).Many of the bees travel large distances and need the diversity of habitats of the dry forest, by which is very important the connectivity of the system. Due to the diversity of plants, pollinators, habitats and the relations among these factors, is therefore difficult to define the most minimum thresholds of integrity. More specifically, pollinators need diverse habitats because of the diverse floral resources, and other life history resources that communities offer, .e.g. plant/soil materials for bee nests; appropriate larval host plants for developing moths, etc." Some bees can survive among years under the soil in case of drought, of such form that the absence of bees in a specific moment, necessarily does not signify a reduction of its populations. Due to the high diversity of species and habitats the effective reproductive population (from 500 to 1000 individuals) will be dispersed upon a very large area. Due to the intrinsic variability of the system, is difficult to determine if a reduction exists in the pollinators and in the levels of fructification that are out of the natural rank of variability.Monitoring the phenology of flowering. It is possible to monitor bees, bats and moths with established methodologies in the literature. (See Frankie et al., 2002 and Haber & Frankie, 1989) for bees and moths; and La Val, 2002 and Heithaus et al., 1975 for bats.) Monitoring the fructification of indicator plants Monitoring large bees key groups. Monitoring bats. Dispertion of seeds The main dispersers of seeds are birds, mammals (bats, deer, tapirs, coatis, raccoons, coyotes and foxs) and ants. The survival of many species of plants depends on their mobility out of the patch where they are found. The reduction of animals by selective hunting, fire (of high intensity in areas with exotic grass) and competence with the cattle. In the Chaco, the over-overgrassing favored the increase of the density of Bromeliads, this provoked that the seeds scattered by the wind never arrived to the soil, being reduced thus the growth of seedlings. It is supposed that similar processes can occur in other dry forests (as exotic gramineas in Mexico and America Central). At present the populations of species for hunting are very reduced (perhaps very near the threshold), presumably this is altering the seeds dispersion processes, is possible this to be reflected in the next 10 or 30 years. The seeds production fluctuation in long-lived plants is not a significant factor; however, if a tendency of reduction in the long time limit exists, this could affect the forest structure. Monitoring the structure of ages of the arboreal species of the forest (Dan Janzen and the CDC of the University La Molina in Peru). [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks]. There should be more knowledge about the succession of arboreal species and in which sseral stages are different in the patches. Monitoring the relative abundance of the representatives of the different guilds of dispersors. Bodmer and Damian Rumiz (Bolivia), and Natural Museum Noel Kempff Market. Low Animal Biomas At present populations of species for hunting are very reduced (perhaps very near the threshold). [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.] Presumably this is altering the seeds dispersion processes. It is possible this could be reflected in the next 10 or 30 years.Seeds Depredation Groups of granivorous and frugivorous birds and mammals, coleopteral (bruchidos), are the most important groups in the depredation and dispersion of seeds. The unsteadiness in the number of seeds pillagers will produce at the same time an unsteadiness in the processes of dispersion and growth of new seedlings. It is known that ecologically they have disappeared some guilds of seeds pillagers, [Experts, if you know of any published studies, please cite. Thanks.] However the results will be seen to the next 20 years.The effect upon the forest structure is not known for lack of good prior studies to the ecological changes. Herbivory over seedlings or mature plants.Herbivorous is a very important factor upon seedlings since is one of the most vulnerable phases in its cycle of life. The survival of seedlings determines the structure of the Dry Forest. The stockbreeding of goats and cows is affecting the survival of seedlings. This effect is notorious in all the Chaco (Morello and Saravia Toledo, 1959; Lewis, 1991). In Costa Rica the cows are eating leguminous in a selective way, affecting the composition of the forest. The lack of older natives herbivorous is changing the composition of the forest.In Caatinga is notorious the effect of the over-shepherding, being observed that when the cattle is removed (goats and cows) a quick recuperation of the forest is given.Morello and Saravia Toledo (1959). The Forest Chaqueo. II. The Stockbreeding and the Forest in the East of Salta. Rev. Agron. of the Northwest Argentino, Vol. 3, 209-258. Studies being developed in Chamela, Mexico. (Bullock, 1995). Also in Las Gamas, Argentina (Lewis, 1991). Vegetation Structure This factor is one of the most important factors that maintains the functionality of the Forest. Exotic Animals: cows, horses, donkeys, goats, and tilapias (Oreochromis spp.) In the case of cows, goats (very harmful due to that they eat also the roots), horses and donkeys, these affect changing the structure of vegetation and of soil to trampling and favoring the processes of erosion. In the case of tilapias, these affect pillaging or by competence by resources with native species of fish, affecting the structure and composition of the communities of this group. In Ecuador the over-overgrassingchanged the dry forest to savanna or thorny brushwood in some places. [Experts, please specify the places in Equator. Thanks.] Studies in Africa show that the over-overgrassingcontributes to the desertification; in general many systems are not recoverable after the over-shepherding. The experience has shown that the tilapia has provoked strong impacts in the aquatic systems. Its introduction has been favorable for human consumption or simply has been scattered for hydraulic works. There are examples like the ones from Caatinga, in which the start of the recuperation of the forest has been observed (over-shepherding) after a year of stockbreeding had been removed. Also it was observed that when deforestation for artificial meadows and overcharge those plots, recuperation is not observed, and the desertification processes start. See Gordon Frankie for reference of a thesis of Cornell. [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks.] In Costa Rica Dan Janzen is handling the stockbreeding to recuperate the Dry Forest. [Experts, if you know they Give' s publication on this subject, please cite. Thanks.] Monitoring of vegetable cover and compact of the soil in cattle areas.  Information gaps and caveats Carmen Josse: Una aproximacin posible a esta falta de informacin, puede ser el hacer evaluaciones comparativas de reservas o areas protegidas con este tipo de ecosistema. Donde se pueda evaluar condicin, tamao y contexto bajo diferentes situaciones. Recommended priorities for conservation-driven research agenda and next steps Gordon Frankie (Frankie et al., 2002, in press): 1. Need more basic plant inventory work. Plant inventory surveys in the Neotropics are needed in order to know the full range of species present in given regions, ecosystems, or habitats. In addition to species lists, the surveys help to: a) determine frequencies of species occurrence, b) define geographic and habitat limits of species, c) construct phenological patterns, and 4) identify which habitats are in urgent need of attention. 2. Need information on generalized versus specialized pollination. The very common occurrence of the small bee/generalist and general insect systems in the dry forest raises many questions about the effectiveness of each visitor type to effect pollination (Johnson and Steiner 2000). More specifically, we need to know the comparative capacity of each visitor type for carrying pollen and which visitors are moving between plants to promote outcrossing. We also need to know more about the periods of stigmatic receptivity in relation to visitor activity, especially for the insect groups that cross over to other pollination systems. This information may become important in dry forests that become heavily impacted by humans in the future. 3. Need to monitor and restore pollinators. There is little doubt that at least some pollinator types, such as large bees, are declining in the dry forest (Frankie et al. 1997) as habitat loss through human development continues. In large areas that still contain substantially protected natural habitat, there is a need to develop long-term monitoring programs for the important pollinator groups, especially large and small bees, bats, and moths. At the same time basic biological and ecological information must be developed for use in restoring populations of pollinators where downward trends are obvious. Sites for conducting this type of research and application must be carefully selected to insure a high probability of success. Historical records of vegetative cover and land use will play an important role in this research. It is important to stress that this kind of work must start NOW while there are still extant and appropriate habitat and pollinator populations (see also discussion on this topic by Janzen, 1974). 4. Need to apply biologists' knowledge to conserve and restore pollinators. There are at least three courses of action that pollinator biologists could pursue to assist declining pollinator populations. First, they can collaborate with other biologists who are also concerned about decline of their specific organisms (e.g. birds, mammals) and habitat. Building a coalition of concerned biologists with integrated management plans for protection of habitat for several threatened species could be effective if land stewards, associated with the habitat, were receptive and willing to participate in some way as stakeholders. Second, biologists could also work in a variety of ways towards conserving areas known to naturally harbor healthy populations of pollinators, and preferably several types. As in the first case, this kind of project will require that pollinator biologists collaborate with land stewards to insure that high quality habitats will be given special attention. Once again, the land steward (owner or manager) should be brought into this kind of project as a participating stakeholder. In the case of a private landowner, the option of creating a conservation easement to protect special areas should be given serious consideration. In areas where much is known about the requirements of pollinators and where decline is strongly suspected, restoration is another possible course of action. Restoration in this case should have the goal of adding known floral and other resources preferred by pollinators. Hands-on work of planting plants or actively enhancing other pollinator resources (e.g. nesting material for bees) has great appeal to private landowners and some public land stewards in contrast to just "setting habitat aside for wildlife." Restoration is proactive and highly visible and can be understood and appreciated by most landowner/stewards. Literature Cited Andrew Noss, et.al. On page 4. Bodmer and Damian Rumiz (Bolivia), y Museo Natural Noel Kempff Mercado?? On p. 6. Bullock, S.H., Mooney, H.A. and Medina, E. (eds) (1995). Seasonally dry tropical forests. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 521 pp. Cabrera, A.L. and A. Willink. 1980. Biogeografa de Amrica Latina. Serie de Biologa, 2nd ed., Secretara General de la Organizacin de los Estados Americanos, Washington, DC. Daly, D.C. and J.D. Mitchell. 2000. Lowland vegetation of Tropical South America. In D. L. Lentz (ed.). Imperfect balance: landscape transformations in the Precolumbian Americas. Columbia University Press, New York. Pp. 391-453. Dan Janzen esta manejando la ganadera para recuperar el Bosque Seco en Costa Rica.?? On p. 8. Dan Janzen y el CDC de la Universidad la Molina en Peru ?? On p. 6. Frankie, G. W. 1997. Endangered havens for diversity. BioScience 47: 322-324. Frankie, G. W., H. G. Baker, and P.A. Opler. 1974. Comparative phenological studies of trees in tropical wet and dry forests in the lowlands of Costa Rica. J. Ecol. 62: 881-919. Frankie, G.W. , W.A. Haber, P.A. Opler, and K.S. Bawa. 1983. Characteristics and organization of the large bee pollination system in the Costa Rican dry forest. In: C.E. Jones and R.J. Little (eds.) Handbook of experimental pollination biology. pp. 411-447. Van Nostrand, Reinhold Inc., New York. Frankie, G.W., S.B. Vinson, M.A. Rizzardi, T.L. Griswold, S. OKeefe, and R. R. Snelling. 1997. Diversity and abundance of bees visiting a mass flowering tree species in disturbed seasonal dry forest, Costa Rica. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 70(4): 281-296. Frankie, G.W. , W.A. Haber, S.B. Vinson, K.S. Bawa, P.S. Ronchi, and N. Zamora. 2002. Flowering phenology, breeding systems, and pollination systems, diversity in the seasonal dry forest. Chapter in G. W. Frankie, A. Mata, and S. B. Vinson (eds.) Biodiversity conservation in Costa Rica: learning the lessons in a seasonal dry forest. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. (In press). Haber, W.A. and G.W. Frankie. 1989. A tropical hawkmoth community: Costa Rica dry forest Sphingidae. Biotropica 21: 151-172. Heithaus, E. R., T. H. Fleming, and P.A. Opler. 1975. Foraging patterns and resource utilization in seven species of bats in a seasonal tropical forest. Ecology 56: 841-854. La Val, R. K. 2002. An ultrasonically silent night- the tropical dry forest without bats. Chapter in G. W. Frankie, A. Mata, and S. B. Vinson (eds.) Biodiversity conservation in Costa Rica: learning the lessons in a seasonal dry forest. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. (In press). Lewis, J.P. 1991. Three levels levels of floristical variation in the forest of Chaco, Argentina. J. of Vegetation Science 2: 125-130) Morello, J. y C. Saravia Toledo 1959. El Bosque Chaqueo. II. La Ganadera y el Bosque en el Oriente de Salta. Rev. Agron. del Noroeste Argentino, Vol. 3, 209-258. Pennington, R.T., D.E. Prado and C.A. Pendry. Neotropical seasonally dry forests and Quaternary vegetation changes. Journal of Biogeography: 27: 261-273. Recommended resources Bullock, S.H., Mooney, H.A. and Medina, E. (eds). 1995. Seasonally dry tropical forests. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 521 pp. Frankie, G.W., H.G. Baker, and P.A. Opler. 1974. Comparative phenological studies of trees in tropical wet and dry forests in the lowlands of Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology. 62: 881-919. Frankie, G.W. , W.A. Haber, P.A. Opler, and K.S. Bawa. 1983. Characteristics and organization of the large bee pollination system in the Costa Rican dry forest. In: C.E. Jones and R.J. Little (eds.) Handbook of experimental pollination biology. pp. 411-447.Van Nostrand, Reinhold Inc., New York. Frankie, G.W., S.B. Vinson, M.A. Rizzardi, T.L. Griswold, S. OKeefe, and R. R. Snelling. 1997. Diversity and abundance of bee visiting a mass flowering tree species in disturbed seasonal dry forest, Costa Rica. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 70(4): 281-296. Frankie, G.W. , W.A. Haber, S.B. Vinson, K.S. Bawa, P.S. Ronchi, and N. Zamora. 2002. Flowering phenology, breeding systems, and pollination systems, diversity in the seasonal dry forest. Chapter in G. W. Frankie, A. Mata, and S. B. Vinson (eds.) Biodiversity conservation in Costa Rica: learning the lessons in a seasonal dry forest. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. (In press). Janzen, D.H. 1974. The deflowering of Central America. Nat. Hist. 83: 48-53. Janzen, D.H. (ed.) 1983. Natural history of Costa Rica. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 816 pp. Kessler, M., K. Bach, N. Helme, S.G. Beck, J. Gonzales. 2000. Floristic diversity of Andean dry forests in Bolivia an overview. In: Siegmar W. Breckle, B. Schweizer and U. Arndt. (eds.) Results of worldwide ecological studies. Proceedings of the 1st Symposium of the A.F.W. Schimper-Foundation established by H. and E. Walter, Hohenheim, October 1998. Verlag Gnter Heimbach, Stuttgart. Prado, D.E. and P.E. Gibbs. 1993. Patterns of species distributions in the dry seasonal forests of South America. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 80: 902-927. Prado, D.E. 1993. What is the Gran Chaco vegetation in South America? I. A review. Contribution to the study of flora and vegetation of the Chaco. V. Candollea 48(1): 145-172. Prado, D.E. 1993. What is the Gran Chaco vegetation in South America? I. A redefinition. Contribution to the study of the flora and vegetation of the Chaco. VII. Candollea 48(2): 615-629. Prado, D.E., P.E. Gibbs, A. Pott, and V.J. Pott. 1992. The Chaco-Pantanal transition in southern Mato Grosso, Brazil. In: Furley, P.A., J. Proctor and J.A. Ratter. (eds.) Nature and dynamics of forest-savanna boundaries. Chapman and Hall, London. Prado, D.E. (2000): Seasonally dry forests of tropical South America: from forgotten ecosystems to a new phytogeographic unit. Edinburgh Journal of Botany 57 (3): 437-461. Ruiz Zapata, T. and M. T. K. Arroyo. 1978. Plant reproductive ecology of a secondary deciduous tropical forest in Venezuela. Biotropica 10(3): 221-230. / ( 8 9  } 5BWXcQREF˿˿˿˿˲˦˲˘zlzzZzz#hhn6CJOJQJ^JaJhhn5CJOJQJ hhnCJOJQJ^JaJhhnCJOJQJhhn5CJOJQJhhn>*OJQJhhnCJOJQJhhn6OJQJhhnOJQJhhnB*OJQJphhhxOJQJhhxB*OJQJph/\a5zupppgu^gdngdngdngdngdxikd$$If40!  64 ` af4p $Ifgdx $Ifgdx '5clr$$If^a$gdnl'$$If^a$gdnl'$If^gdnl'$$If^a$gdnl'^gdngdngdn =DGQRbz{{d$If^gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@Ff$$If^a$gdnl'$If^gdnl' zDEFee K{{{$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlFfz$$If^a$gdnl@$If^gdnl@ i x^$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@Ffg$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl +!,!x^$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlFfT $$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@ !!##i$$$$v%w% &'&''++12M2N2^22222233556666%8&8D8E8g8h88888A޳ӥފx# *hhnCJOJQJ^JaJhhn5CJOJQJhhnCJOJQJhhn5CJOJQJhnCJOJQJ^JaJ#hhn6CJOJQJ^JaJhhnOJQJ hhnCJOJQJ^JaJ h3hnCJOJQJ^JaJ.,!-!!!!!!"4#x^$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@FfA $$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl4#5#M######3$w%)'xx^$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlFf.$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@ )'*'G'W'''''((`)xx^$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@Ff$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl `))n*o**+++C++ ,x^^$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlFf$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@ ,,{-->.'//001112}xFf$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl 2Y2Z2[2\2]2^2_2`22}c^YYgdnFf$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@ 22222232333]333o$$If^a$gdnl'$$If^a$gdnl'$$If^a$gdnl'$$If^a$gdnl'$$If^a$gdnl'gdn^gdn 333333:44455k556xxx$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@Ff$$If^a$gdnl' 6P66666 7W77x^$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlFf!$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@7$8%8&8?8@8A8B8x^$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@Ff$$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlB8C8D8E8b8c8d8e8x^$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\Ff'$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@e8f8g8h88888888x$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@Ff*$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\ 88888888x^$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlFfv-$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@888888889::>;xxxx$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@Ffc0$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl >;;<~==>>>??@@AAAAAFfP3$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@AAAAAA~GGHHHHI%IUKVKNNdOfOhOiOOO"P2PVVVNXrX ZGZ\]`CaDabhchiiiܲܠܠܲܠєццццzmzhhnCJOJQJhhn6OJQJhhn56OJQJhhn>*OJQJ#hhn6CJOJQJ^JaJhnCJOJQJ^JaJ h3hnCJOJQJ^JaJhhnOJQJ hhnCJOJQJ^JaJ#hhn7CJOJQJ^JaJ*A0AA B BBCDEPFF}G}}}$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl }G~GGGHHHHx^$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@Ff=6$$If^a$gdnlHHHHHHHHtIuIJJJx$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\Ff*9$$If^a$gdnl@ JSKTKUKVKKK?L@LLRMMxxx$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@Ff<$$If^a$gdnl\$$If^a$gdnl\ MMNNeOfOgOhOiO~OOOx$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnlFf?$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@$$If^a$gdnl@ OOOOOO4P5P6P QQxxx^^$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@FfA$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl$$If^a$gdnl QeRSST4UUeVVVVVVWWXgdngdnFfD$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@$$If^a$gdnl\@XKX:YkYYZ\`PhQhbhchhhcijjXkkklmnfppqrgdngdn $h`ha$gdngdnii|jjkkllnno*pdpeppp|qq&r|rrrs2sWtottttttuuvvwxyeyyyyy{{{D{E{Y{[{{{{W|d|e|q|}}}}~~a} ܴhhn6H*OJQJhhnCJOJQJhhnCJOJQJhhn6OJQJhhnOJQJhhnH*OJQJBr?sstttt$uuwxyy^z{~|.}}~&'gdngdngdn &'hnhhnCJOJQJhhn6CJOJQJ 1h/ =!"#$%$$If!vh55&#v#v&:V 4 6+5544 ` f4p$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl4 <65kd$$Ifl4ֈ{ &," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl       <65kd$$Iflֈ{ &,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl <65kd$$Iflֈ{ &," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl       <65kd} $$Iflֈ{ &,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl <65kdj $$Iflֈ{ &," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl       <65kdW$$Iflֈ{ &,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl <65kdD$$Iflֈ{ &," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl       <65kd1$$Iflֈ{ &,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl <65kd$$Iflֈ{ &," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh55|5 55S5#v#v|#v #v#vS#v:Vl       <65kd $$Iflֈ{ &,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl4 <65kd$$Ifl4ֈA ," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl       <65kd $$IflֈA ,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl <65kd#$$IflֈA ," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl       <65kd&$$IflֈA ,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl <65kd)$$IflֈA ," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl       <65kd,$$IflֈA ,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl <65kd/$$IflֈA ," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl       <65kdy2$$IflֈA ,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl <65kdf5$$IflֈA ," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl       <65kdS8$$IflֈA ,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl <65kd@;$$IflֈA ," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl       <65kd->$$IflֈA ,"       <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl <65kdA$$IflֈA ," <0644 lap<4$$If!vh555555{#v#v#v#v#v#v{:Vl       <65kdD$$IflֈA ,"       <0644 lap<4L`L nNormal 8^8@OJQJ_HmH sH tH ` n Heading 1a$$xd$d0%d&d-D@&M N0OP^x@B*CJKHOJQJph^`^ n Heading 2$$d@&^@CJKHOJQJDA@D Default Paragraph FontRi@R  Table Normal4 l4a (k@(No List>B`> n Body Text$da$8`8 nTable Contemporary:V0j%@ j% j% 4 8^8<@B*`JphB*`Jph5B*\`Jphror x Part Title*$dl-D0$M ^a$@B*CJTOJQJphh>`2h xTitle/$$d@<$dN^@CJ(KHOJQJFJ@2F xSubtitle$<@&a$ CJ^JaJ'x /\a 5 clr=DGQRbzDEFee Ki +,-45M3w)*GW `!!n"o""###C## $${%%>&'''(()))*Y*Z*[*\*]*^*_*`*******+2+3+]++++++++:,,,--k--.P..... /W//$0%0&0?0@0A0B0C0D0E0b0c0d0e0f0g0h0000000000000000000000122>334~55>66778899999099 : ::;<=P>>}?~???@@@@@@@@@@@tAuABBBSCTCUCVCCC?D@DDREEMFFeGfGgGhGiG~GGGGGGGG4H5H6H IIeJKKL4MMeNNNNNNOOPKP:QkQQRTXP`Q`b`c```cabbXcccdeffhhij?kkllll$mmopqq^rs~t.uuvw&x)x@0 `0 @0 @00000000000000 0 000 00 0 000 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 00000 000 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 00 0 0 000 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0 0 0 00000 0000 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000 0 000 00 0 0 0 000 000 00 000 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0000 0000 000 000000 0 0 0 000 000 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 00 00 0 00 0 0 0 000 000 0 0000 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 00 000 00 000 0 0 0000000000000@0@09@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@0l@09@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@000/\a 5 clr=DGQRbzDEFee Ki +,-45M3w)*GW `!!n"o""###C## $${%%>&'''(()))*Y*Z*[*\*]*^*_*`*******+2+3+]++++++++:,,,--k--.P..... /W//$0%0&0?0@0A0B0C0D0E0b0c0d0e0f0g0h0000000000000000000000122>334~55>66778899999099 : ::;<=P>>}?~???@@@@@@@@@@@tAuABBBSCTCUCVCCC?D@DDREEMFFeGfGgGhGiG~GGGGGGGG4H5H6H IIeJKKL4MMeNNNNNNOOPKP:QkQQRTXP`Q`b`c```cabbXcccdeffhhij?kkllll$mmopqq^rs~t.uuvw&x)x@0 `0 @0 @0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0Z@0Z@0@0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q@0Q@0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q@0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0Q @0@0@0@0@0@0 @0 @0@0@0 @0@0 @0 @0 @0 @0@0@0 @0@0@0 @0@0 @0@0@0 @0@0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0@0@0@0@0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0@0@0 @0@0@0@0 @0@0@0@0 @0@0@0 @0@0@0@0@0@0 @0 @0 @0 @0@0@0 @0@0@0 @0 @0@0@0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0@0@0@0@0 @0@0 @0@0 @0 @0@0 @0 @0 @0 @0@0@0 @0@0@0 @0 @0@0@0@0 @0 @0 @0@0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0 @0@0@0 @0@0 @0@0@0 @0@0 @0@0@0 @0 @0 @0@0@0+@0+@0@0G@0G@0G@0G@0G@0G@0G@0G@0G@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@00Ai 'AIYbd5z,!4#)'`) ,22367B8e888>;A}GHJMOQXr'BDEFGHJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXZ[\]^_`ac'C*D+,Ĉ-.D/Ċ0D1ĉ234D59y68y7D9y89y99y::y;D:y<:y=:y>;y?D;y@;yA;yByKD>yL>yM>yN?yOD?yP?yQ @}RL@}S@}T@}U A}VLA}WA}XA}Y B}ZLB}[B}\B}] C}^LC}_C}`C}a D}bLD}cD}dD}e E}fLE}gE}hE}i F}jLF}kF}lF}m G}nLG}oG}pG}q H}rLH}sH}tH}u I}vLI}wI}xI}y J}zLJ}{J}|J}} K}~LK}K}K} yL y y y !yL!y!y!y "yL"y"y"y #yL#y#y#y $yL$y$y$y %yL%y%y%y &yL&y&y&y 'yL'y'y'y (yL(y(y(y )yL)y)y)y *yL*y*y*y +yL+y+y+y ,yL,y,y,y -yL-y-y-y .yL.yDăD¸ĄøT"ĸŸ"ƸT"Ǹ"ȸI{ɸ"ʸ"˸Դ"̸Գ"͸[θT"ϸԵ"иѸҸDӸԸոDָą׸ظ!ٸ eڸr۸ܸݸL"޸ ߸#,"{|>{"L"$sMDQk$e/w2y0y3"y!2?@ABCDFEGIHJKLMNOPQRTSUVWXYZ[]\^_`abdcegfhjikmlnoprqstuvwxyz{|}~177"44BB6RR2 2 C g g { R R   77tNN$$--:;;>>R?R?`?g?g?5D?@ABCDFEGIHJKLMNOPQRTSUVWXYZ[]\^_`abdcegfhjikmlnoprqstuvwxyz{|}~9_*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagsState9*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagsplace=*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags PlaceName=*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags PlaceTypeB*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagscountry-region8*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagsCity __________!Td '+1"-?GIQS\^fhmo{DMNUcj    < A C M N R S Z ] f g n s ~         $ % ) , 0 8 : ; E H K L R S ] ^ f i p r v z |       # * 0 1 = ? D E L M T W b f m r y z        ! ) / 8 < B C F G J K M N V W ] ^ e f q s y z | } ckr$%)*3GP"iwNV(x xx)x$'~ N R   s  LV_mer#$$$$&'(())**,,k-r-F/J/004477q;~;<#<<<==??(A0AAAB1BpFqr%r&r&x)x3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333?nx 5 cr=QRbzDEFe  +,-45w)* !o"###C#%(())*Y*Z*[*\*]*^*_****3++++++,-..... /W//$0%0&0?0@0A0B0C0D0E0b0c0d0e0f0g0h0000000000000000>35799909 :<=}?~???@@@@@@@uABBTCUCVCC@DEMFgGhGiGGGGGGGG6HIK4MNNN)x@kI'x@UnknownGz Times New Roman5Symbol3& z ArialE& Century Gothic?& Arial Black"1hsFsF9f=9f=$4ww3QH ?n4Rachel NeugartenRachel NeugartenOh+'0   < H T`hpx4ssRachel Neugartendachach Normal.dotaRachel Neugartend3chMicrosoft Word 10.0@F#@NηG@f]G9f՜.+,0 hp  The Nature Conservancy=wO 4 Title  !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdeghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~Root Entry FP,*nGData fF1TableWordDocument"SummaryInformation(DocumentSummaryInformation8CompObjj  FMicrosoft Word Document MSWordDocWord.Document.89q