ࡱ> @ ~bjbj "tuu~.......B\B<Y[[[[[[$Rhl.sss..s..YsY..] Gz)} 01,]BB.....] ^ L<7BBMRMBBR4Terrestrial habitat types 4.9. Mangroves General description and geographic variation The text that follows was adapted from the pre-workshop document of Yara Schaeffer-Novelli, with additional information contributed by Aaron Ellison and Elizabeth Farnsworth. Mangrove ecosystems, also referred to as Mangal, are characterized by woody, tropical halophytes that are obligate to the system. The quintessential mangrove system is composed of trees with prop roots that spend much of their time inundated by tides. However, there are frequent physiognomic variations that depend on local biotic and edaphic factors and gradients in which the mangroves are found. Mangrove ecosystems are critical nursery grounds, last refuges for a number of large mammals of lowland forest, and refugia from predation for a number of commercially important fish and invertebrates (spiny lobsters). The mangrove ecosystem is found panglobally. There is substantial continental and regional variation in species richness within mangal; in the Neotropics richness is highest on the Pacific coasts of Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica and declines with latitude (Duke et al. 1998; Ellison and Farnsworth, 2000). Caribbean mangal hosts the worlds richest mangrove associated invertebrate fauna, and provides habitat for a number of globally endangered species. The coast of the Yucatan Peninsula and Belize, with abundant rainfall, occasional hurricanes, and a <1m tidal amplitude, has a particular high invertebrate and tree diversity. Ellison and Farnsworth (1996) provide critical data on the extent of mangrove forests in the Caribbean. In Central America, Mangroves provide habitat for threatened epiphytes, including the orchids Brassavola nodosa and Schomburgkia tibicinis (see Murren and Ellison, 1996; Rico-Gray et al., 1989) and several bromeliads (see Gomez and Winkler, 1991.) I dont know if these species are globally endangered, but theyre all threatened, and on CITES restricted lists. Manatees depend on mangroves and adjacent seagrass beds for habitat as well. Other species to check on include the mangrove warbler, American crocodile, and caiman. For a list of rare species supported by mangal around the world, please see Appendix, pp. 30 & 31. New World mangroves attain their greatest structural development where rainfall and tidal subsidies are large such as near equatorial areas where intense convective activities of the Intertropical Convergence Zone occur, and mesotidal (tidal range 2 to 4 m) or macrotidal (tidal range > 4 m) regimes dominates. Conditions associated with high annual rainfall (> 2,000 mm/yr) and large tidal amplitudes (> 2 m) occur on the northwest seaboard of the South American continent along the Pacific coast of Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru, and on the eastern seaboard of the continent, from south of the Gulf of Paria (Venezuela) to So Lus (Brazil). It is within this moist and dynamic region where the greatest mangrove development occurs (Schaeffer-Novelli & Cintrn-Molero et al., 1990). This belt is roughly restricted to within 10 degrees of the equator, except on the Pacific coast of South America. There the Peruvian collision-type coastal margin is dominated by high mountains and small watersheds; and is characterized by reduced delivery of sediments to a narrow coastal plain (Schaeffer-Novelli & Cintrn-Molero, 1993). Atmospheric stability arising from the subsidence of the easterly winds flowing down the Andes and the westerly winds cooled by the cold Humboldt Current suppresses convective activity and creates extremely xeric conditions close to the coast (Linacre & Geerts, 1997). Thus, the southernmost mangrove stands at the western coast of South America barely reach 05o30' S, at the mouth of the Piura River (Pea & Vasquez, 1985). Along the Brazilian coast mangroves occur from the border with French Guiana (04o30' N) to points well beyond the Tropic of Capricorn, reaching 28o30'S, near Laguna (Santa Catarina, Brazil), where they eventually become limited by low temperatures and sporadic frost events (Cintrn-Molero & Schaeffer-Novelli, 1981&1983). Community types/zonation and major gradients within the system (patterns) Mangrove ecosystems exhibit distinct zonation, with certain tree species within mangrove systems occurring along tidal gradients, likely attributable to species-specific differences in tolerance to edaphic factors/physical gradients that vary with tidal height; sorting of propagules; interspecific competition; and seed predation (Ellison and Farnsworth, 2000). The exact ecological processes shaping this zonation are not conclusive. There are about nine species of mangroves in the Neotropics, Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Conocarpus erectus, which are common and widespread, and A. schaueriana, A. bicolor, R. racemosa, R. harrisonii, and Pelliciera rhizophorae, which have more restricted distribution. Avicennia schaueriana occurs in the Caribbean Islands, A. bicolor on the Pacific coast of Central America. Rhizophora racemosa and R. harrisonii (= R. mangle x R. racemosa) are found on the Pacific coast of Central and South America. Pelliciera rhizophorae occurs sporadically in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador. It has been included in The 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett, 1998). Pelliciera rhizophorae was formerly widespread throughout the Neotropics, but climatic changes during the Holocene have dramatically reduced its range (Graham, 1995; Ellison, et al., 1999; Tomlinson, 1995.). The physiognomy and functional characteristics of mangrove stands reflect the response of the component species to local ecophysiological factors. Lugo & Snedaker (1974) recognize six physiographic types of mangrove stands: fringe mangroves, basin mangroves, riverine mangroves, overwash mangroves, scrub mangroves, and hammocks. Each of these types is influenced by sets of similar energy signatures so that within each forest type, similar levels of structural development are attained. Cintrn-Molero et al. (1985) suggest that this classification could be reduced to three broad types - fringes, riverine and basins. Overwash mangroves are basically self-enveloping fringes, whereas scrub and hammocks are considered special types of basins. The classification of mangroves by Lugo & Snedaker has been largely superceded by one developed by Twilley (1995). Fellers work illustrates the importance of nutrient limitation on mangrove structure, especially contrasting scrub, fringe, and basin, and suggests that all is not geomorphology and flooding (Feller, 1995). Hogarth (1999) recognizes the following types of mangrove systems. Fringe Mangroves (tide-dominated): characterized by a high tidal range over a shallow intertidal zone that is often colonized by mangrove trees. Tidal water is typically full strength sea water, but wave action is diffused quickly by passage over a stepped intertidal zone. Sediment and mangrove soils are likely to be more dynamic as tides deposit and remove sediments from the sea and from inland river estuaries. Receive less runoff of terrestrial nutrients compared to riverine forests. Basin Mangroves: On the landward side of fringing mangroves in estuaries. Sheltered from wave action, and inundated infrequently. Highly variable salinity depending on rainfall, groundwater flow, and local tidal surges. Often exhibit high evaporation rates, which can result in hypersaline soils. Due to low currents and little turbulence, basin mangroves can be sinks for nutrients and sediment. Riverine Mangroves: Many large expanses of mangroves are located at river deltas where soils and salinity are amenable to mangrove community development (e.g. Amazon delta). Have low tidal ranges, and strong freshwater flow carrying substantial sediment loads, much of which is deposited within the mangrove communities. Characterized by shifting river channels, and typically mangal expanding inland as well as outward in the shifting, sediment-driven river deltas. Scrub Mangroves: Found in extreme environments where nutrients and freshwater may be limiting. Hammock Mangroves: Relative isolation from rivers or the sea leads to a domed accumulation of organic peat over depressions, where mangroves take root. Carbonate Setting Mangroves: On low-energy coasts where carbonate has accumulated from coral reef breakdown, resulting in lime sediment and silt accumulation. Inland Mangroves: Areas where the mangroves are completely cut-off from the sea, often in sink holes or other depressions. Ecological integrity factors for landscape context Mangroves are naturally disjunct habitats occurring along coastlines and rivers. They tend to have linear or small patch distrbutions. Though mangrove development encompasses both riverine and coastal types in the coastal plain of Belize and eastern Central America, mangroves do not generally occur as large matrix habitats. Mangrove species disperse well with waterborne propagules (often viviparous). They tend therefore not to be as sensitive to habitat fragmentation as many other coastal forest habitats, as long as major ecological processes are intact. However, fringing mangroves in particular may be affected by rising sea level, as their landscape context is extremely limited and linear. These types of mangrove systems will be limited by geology, and by human fragmentation, with in situ loss of the remaining fringing systems from physiological effects of rising sea levels (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1997). Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for landscape context of mangroves Key FactorJustification for SelectionEcological ThresholdsJustification (Natural Range of Variation)IndicatorsFactor Relative Priority Wave/Tidal ExposureLeeward sites more speciose in mangrove root epibiont communities (Farnsworth & Ellison, 1996).Massive sponges, colonial tunicates indicate stable salinity, low tidal action and amplitudes.Tidal CyclesImportant for larval dispersal of mangrove invertebrate and fish communities, Contribute to the dispersal of mangrove seedlings and the zonation patterns of mangrove communities within the system. Affect soil and water salinity ranges.Sea LevelSea level rise from climate change will result in some inland migration that will be highly constrained by geology, and human impediments, and will likely cause significant die-off (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1996b). Simulated experimental rises in sea-level resulted in decreased photosynthesis, growth, and productivity of mangrove tree species (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1997). Throughout the Holocene, mangroves have responded to small changes in sea level < 8-9 mm/yr through landward and seaward migration, mediated by local topography (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1997). Now the migration is no longer possible with dense human settlement along coasts.Freshwater DischargeThough halophytes, mangroves need freshwater input.15 ppt seawater seems to be about the threshold in the neotropics. Benthic epifauna drop out at <35 ppt; freshwater lenses resulting from strong rainfall will kill epibionts near the surface.SedimentationGrowth of mangrove saplings on coral cays declines significantly with sedimentation rate (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1996a). The structure of mangrove roots leads to increased sedimentation and settling of suspended silt. Some 80% of suspended sediment brought in from coastal waters is trapped in mangroves naturally (Hogarth, 1999). The muds that result from the process are critical not only as substrate to mangrove trees and invertebrate communities, but are the site of much nutrient cycling in the system, and unicellular algae and cyanobacteria within these muds exhibit high photosynthetic rates.Accretes in several mangrove systems between 3-6 mm/yr (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1996a), with maximum reported of 8 mm/yr (Hogarth, 1999). Sedimentation rate correlates with pneumatophore density in many mangrove forests. Some 80% of suspended sediment brought in from coastal waters is trapped in mangroves naturally (Hogarth, 1999).High rates of sedimentation associated with urban development cause loss of ascidians and alter epibenthic community structure (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1996b).Hydrographic ProcessesDeemed critical for other successional processes to occur, and affects other landscape context key factors such as sedimentation, freshwater discharge, seedling disperal, etc. Distributes nutrients among adjacent matrix ecosystems such as coral reefs and sea grasses (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000).NEED INFO. See B. Kjerfve et al., 1997, for extensive and detailed studies. Thresholds are affected by road-building and other processes that divert fresh water from mangroves.See Wolanski et al., 1992; Lugo & Snedaker 1974; Twilley 1995.Integrity of Catchment BasinsCan affect hydrographic processes, freshwater inflow from rivers, runoff, sedimentation rates, and indirectly affect human pressures in coastal mangrove forests.Nutrient and Biotic Transport among neighboring systems Especially interactions with seagrass beds and coral reefs. Significant carbon transfer and flux occurs between mangal and seagrass beds (Hogarth, 1999). In addition, crustaceans and fish often move between the 2 ecosystems, either regularly or between different phases of their life cycles. Corals are vulnerable to sedimentation and to eutrophication, which are both mediated by mangroves. Mangroves serve as nurseries for many early life phases of coral reef fish species. Fish and invertebrates may also move between coral reefs and mangroves within phases of their life cycle as well (Hogarth, 1999).There is a broad range of variation in this. Some mangroves are tightly linked to adjacent systems, while others are much less so. Degree of litter export is extremely variable among systems. Ecological integrity factors for condition Mangroves exhibit vivipary, or the precocious growth of seedlings while still attached to the parent tree. When abscised, the propagules are tough, buoyant, and readily water-dispersed. Competition between mangrove and non-mangrove tree species is rarely a key factor in mangal because the unique hydrologic and edaphic conditions of mangrove ecosystems make it difficult for non-mangrove spp to invade mangal. The peaty muds typical of mangroves have a very high silt content and tend to be fairly inhospitable to most suspension and filter-feeding invertebrates. However, mud-dwelling sesarmid, portunuid, and ocupodid crabs are extremely common (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000). Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for condition of mangroves Key FactorJustification for SelectionEcological ThresholdsJustification (e.g., Natural Range of Variation)IndicatorsFactor Relative Priority TemperatureMangroves grow where the average monthly minimum temp. is 20 deg. Celsius. Water temperature Upper threshold = > 31 deg. Air Temperature upper limit: 38 deg. C Temperature fluctuations greater than 10C over short periods and below freezing for more than a few hours have serious negative effects, including structural damage, reduced leaf area (Myers & Ewel, 1990). Reduces leaf area, results in achlorophylly, reduces net photosynthesis, and increases photorespiration (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1996b). Water temps >31 deg C result in a 50-90 percent decline in sessile and mobile invertebrate communities associated with mangroves. Waterborne Dispersal of Mangrove PropagulesAaron Ellison: For state-of-the science, see paper by Rabinowitz (1978). Most recently see paper by P.J. Clarke in Journal of Ecology (August 2001), albeit for the palaeotropics. He reviews the current literature well, though.Dispersal of mangrove epibiont communitiesInfluences the species richness and abundance of mangrove invertebrate and algal communities around mangrove roots (Farnsworth & Ellison, 1996).Insect HerbivoryHerbivores and herbivory are very important regulators of community and physical structure of mangrove ecosystems (Farnsworth & Ellison, 1991). Shorten leaf life span and can hasten premature abscission of Rhizophora propagules (see Farnsworth & Ellison, 1997a.) by increasing abscission rates and decreasing plant productivity; can increase nutrients in soil and near root water communities (Farnsworth & Ellison, 1996). Herbivory negatively impacts seedling growth, influences leaf form and secondary compound chemistry, alter branch architecture and structure, and influences competitive interactions between Avicennia and Rhizophora (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1993).Overall primary production across mangrove ecosystems that is consumed by insects ranges from 10-25%. However, the average is across the globe generally under 5%. Specific study results: Insects consumed 11.1 +/- 32.99% of leaf tissue in Avicennia seedlings (Farnsworth & Ellison, 1996). Herbivores damaged 4.3-25.3% of Rhizophora leaf area and 7.7-36.1% of Avicennia leaf area in Belize (Farnsworth et al., 1996). Herbivory tends to be greater at Medium Water levels vs. at Lower levels. Insect communities of Neotropics are an order of magnitude lower than in the Paleotropics.Elizabeth Farnsworth: It is important to note that neotropical insects in mangrove have not been studied at all to date; several rare species may be found there, and surveys are warranted.Outbreaks of root-boring isopodsReduce root growthCan reduce root growth rates by up to 50% (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1990).Isopod attacks are reduced in presence of certain epibionts (sponges) that repel them chemically. So where these epibionts disappear, isopod attacks may increase.PHSoil chemistry affects not only mangrove tree species themselves, but the ability of algal and invertebrate symbionts to colonize and survive in mangrove ecosystems.pH of pore water within mangrove peat is often acidic, ranging from 4.9 to 6.8, though presence of carbonate materials can elevate pH to7.0 When drained, mangrove peat undergoes rapid acidification (down to 3.5-5.0) which complicates use of mangroves as agricultural land.Dissolved OxygenLimits occurrence of certain species, thereby affecting zonation and community abundance patterns. Rhizophora spp. Can tolerate low oxygen levels better than Avicennia spp. (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1993).Suspended SolidsElizabeth Farnsworth: Heavy metals may be damaging to mangroves; see Ed Klekowski's work [Citation?] on mutational load in Rhizophora mangle. Heavy metals may be damaging to mangroves; see Ed Klekowski's work on mutational load in Rhizophora mangle (Klekowski, et al. 1994a, 1994b, 1994c & 1999; Lowenfeld & Klekowski, 1992).Phosphorus levelsPrimary nutrient limiting growth of some spp (e.g. Rhizophora) at or above mid-water levels (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1996a).SalinityLimits occurrence of certain species, thereby affecting zonation and community abundance patterns. Despite living in saline environments, mangroves require fresh water for growth (acquired through freshwater inflow, as well as through physiological adaptations salt glands, succulent leaves, ultrafiltration processes).Adaptation to saline environments may result from the reduced competition with freshwater species experienced in saline environments (Myers & Ewel, 1990).Avicennia spp. can tolerate high salinity levels better than Rhizophora spp. (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1993). Rhizophora can tolerate soil salinities up to 60-65 ppt, whereas Avicennia may grow at salinities >80-90 ppt (Myers & Ewel, 1990).Post-dispersal PredationImportant factor in structuring mangrove communities Usually occurs by grapsid crabs, coleopteran beetles, and lepidoptera (larvae). Tends to be higher in mangroves near human population centers and at high intertidal sites (Farnsworth & Ellison, 1997a).Data on local predation rates available from Farnsworth and Ellison (1997a).Mutualistic algal and invertebrate epibiont communities in mangrove roots.Many spp. are restricted to mangrove prop roots; contributes to the diversity of mangrove communities. Mutualistic interactions with mangroves: epibionts cause prop roots to produce adventitious rootlets that increase nutrient uptake (esp. N) by mangrove trees, whereas sponges on mangroves grow 1.4-10 x faster than same spp on other substrates (Ellison et al., 1996). Sponges also reduce frequency of isopod attack to roots that reduces root growth rates (Ellison & Farnsworth, 1990). Percent cover of Belizean mangal by root fouling epibionts averages >90% (Ellison et al., 1996). Sponges may account for up to 5-10% of the nitrogen uptake of mangrove trees (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000). Densities of grapsid crabs may range up to 50-70/m2 Distributions controlled by local larval recruitment dynamics and by larger scale physical factors, such as current regimes. Mutualistic algal and invertebrate epibiont communities in mangrove mud.Crabs oxygenate muddy silt-laden soils, and alter the distribution of toxins within these soils (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000). They also consume substantial leaf litter quantities and are responsible for significant nutrient recycling. Densities of grapsid crabs may range up to 50-70/m2Note that these crabs are often harvested in large quantities throughout the world.Avian Communities of MangalContribute inorganic nitrogen to mangrove ecosystems; some spp globally restricted to coastal mangrove forests during all or part of their life cycle. Species can contribute Diversity and abundance of resident and migrant birds. Size of nesting colonies of waterbirds. Mangrove pollinationCritical for reproduction and gene flow, dependent on animal communities.Rhizophora mangle is cleistogamous (self-pollinating). Avicennia germinans is out-crossed and can be a local honey-producer. Pollination biology of mangroves is generally poorly studied. It deserves much more research attention.Tree Stand StructureMangrove Tree Abundance/ Canopy CoverCan prevent the regeneration and establishment of some invasive species, especially the pantropical mangrove fern Achrostichum aureum and Brazilian pepper Schinus terebinthifolius in Everglades which can dramatically alter mangrove seedling recruitment. Also limits the growth of any understory plants in order to maintain the simplified architecture that characterizes mangal (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000).90% canopy cover within mangrove stands (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000), though this can be highly plastic depending on local edaphic conditions. Invertebrate mud-dwelling species among mangrove rootsMutualistic interaction: inverts receive habitat and protection; through their burrowing, they oxygenate and nutrify soils for mangrove trees.Consumption of litter fall by detritivores (crabs)Critical for nutrient cycling.30-80% of fallen leaves, branches, fruits, flowers, etc. are consumed by detritovores (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000). Presence, Abundance, and Diversity of EpiphytesInclude orchids, mistletoes, ferns, bromeliads (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000). These epiphytic species can then harbor important insect communities. Abundance and richness is substantially lower than in upland tropical forests. Epiphytes can support their own mutualisms, e.g., with ants (Rio-Gray et al., 1989).PollinationFlowers of some mangrove spp. support a diverse fauna of native pollinators (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000), including bees and bats. Maintaining pollination is critical to maintain these pollinating species, as well as maintain heterozygosity, fitness, and gene flow among mangrove trees.Avicennia is probably important to honey bees, which are significant pollinators of adjacent crops.Mangrove Fungal communitiesDominant agents of decomposition of mangrove wood and leaves. Play a significant role in nutrient cycling (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000).Reptile communitiesEspecially crocodiles and alligators, as top predators.Mangrove PathogensFairly poorly studied, but known to cause massive die-back of some mangrove communities when in outbreak. May become more frequent when mangal is exposed to pollution (Ellison & Farnsworth, 2000).  Ecological integrity factors for size Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for size of mangroves Key Factor or Disturbance TypesJustification for SelectionAverage size of disturbance and range. Return Intervals of Disturbance Recovery Time Or, if dictated by a species: Minimum population Size Area required for Min Pop SizeRecommendations for Calculations of Minimum Dynamic AreaVG, G, F, P Recom-mendations (including multipliers for ratings of VG, G, F, P)Tree fallsLightning StrikesRegular source of canopy disturbance. Likely to cause changes to soil characteristics and invertebrate communities.Return interval: 8-100 year range Size of Disturbance: << 1km2 Disturbance duration/Recovery time: 1-50 yearsHurricanesMangroves afford protection to upland systems from cyclones/hurricanes, but can be killed by wind damage and tidal surges. Very few species resprout after damage to the main trunk regeneration is almost entirely from seedlings. Hurricanes can cause changes to the species zonation in a mangrove community given resorting of seedlings and differential mortality of species (e.g. Rhizophora survival>Avicennia> Laguncularia in the Neotropics. They also cause direct damage, and can alter sedimentation patterns in both positive and negative ways. While sediment may be removed from extant mangroves along the coast, increased sedimentation from catchment rivers can increase alluvial fans and areas for mangrove expansion (Hogarth, 1999). Recovery Times: 10-50 years Return Intervals: 50-100 years. Size of Disturbance: 1-100 km2Tidal erosion and deposition / Geomorphologic changesSize of Disturbance: 50-500 km2  Additional Information The experts assessed the biodiversity health of mangrove systems. The results are presented in the following tables. Mangrove, Landscape Context Key FactorJustification for SelectionEcological ThresholdsJustification (Natural Range of Variation)IndicatorsFactor Relative Priority Habitat PhysiographyMangroves occupy tropical coastal areas protected from the surf (low energy environments), little deep, and with tendency to accumulate sediment. Those areas act like reservoirs of nutrientes and therefore, they serve of refuge and/or areas of reproduction for many marine, estuaries, migratory and freshwater organisms. It is recommended to avoid modifications in the coastal Physiography (coastal morphology) without the necessary knowledge of the site dynamics . For example: to avoid dredged, backfill, infrastructures and excessive accumulation of sediment.The rates of sedimentation / erosion in the mangrove systems are naturally high, but at the same time extremely variables at site level. Mangroves used to adapt to elevations of the relative sea level up to> 10mm/year. The extraction of water of the phreatic stratum and the exploitation of petroleum contribute to the sinking of the soil, resulting in a "relative" elevation of the sea level, and an increase in rates of erosion. The physiological stress of the mangrove forest is more evident in the external border (in contact with the water), as well as in interfaces of the mangrove with the adjacent terrestrial system.Defoliation can be monitored through aerial photography; the external and internal edges of the mangrove are going to present answers before, the center delays in responding. Indicator: leaves floating after being fallen of the canopy. Identify geomorphologic processes (if in passed years they have seen changes by surveys or interviews) Monitoring of the development and planning of local and river basin infrastructure. 1 Hydrologic Regime: Circulation patternsRegulate the sedimentary dynamic and the regimen of flood Controls salinity, levels of oxygen, dispersion of nutrientes and propagules. Control the balance of freshwater and salted water allowing the optimum physiological and ecological levelsThe threshold is zero. It is necessary a minimum laminar flow without interruptions (ex. Barriers), guaranteeing the maximum area of flood, considering extreme and episodic cyclic events (not necessarily periodic). The nil threshold indicates that any interference in the flow compromises the viability of the system. Assess the velocity of the flow guaranteeing to be laminar (<1m/s), open flow without interruptions. Changes in infrastructure. Monitor the hydraulic behavior of basins (Reference: Elizabeth Farnsworth: Consult Robert Twilley about hydrology and importation/exportation in mangroves). Hydraulic model that describes laminar flow in mangrove and "mudflats". It is important to assure that the flow in the canals in emptied moments to be faster than the laminar flow) see Windevoxel and Alfonso Aguirre for references [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks.].2Hydrologic Regimen: Flooded cycleRegulates the balance of freshwater and salted waters permitting the optimum physiological and ecological levels. Determines the competence among the different species of plants and animals, resulting in zoning in the successional processes .To maintain the natural environment of flood (conserving the amplitude for the flood of the river as for the tide, besides of guaranteeing the accumulation of nutrientes and propagules) In each area a natural variation of the flooded area exists, thus is not possible to establish a threshold. The mangrove presents seasonal variations, periodic as not periodic, derived from the climatic, topographical, oceanic a hydrodynamic conditions. Indicators can be defined when you analyze the topography, aerial photography, tide table, registrations of river volume, levels and rivers flood periods, and speaking with local people. Where possible, monitor with brief estimation with posts in zones of flood to measure tides system with bottles to different heights that are filled with the tide. See Robertson & Alongi, 1992 and "1996 Australian publication" [Experts, please provide literature citation. Thanks.] about monitoring methods of tropical ecosystems; contact Ivan Jose Nieff-Univ of Corrientes, Argentina. [Experts, please provide Ivan Jose Nieff' s and-mail address or cite her publications in the References section. Thanks.]2Hydrologic Regimen: Quality of waterThis factor is more related with the transportation of sediment (particles) in suspension. The accumulation of sediments is not a physical requisite to the presence of mangroves. In erosive coasts (high energy), the accumulation of sediments maintains relatively constant the water and substrate levels. Mangroves are found in areas practically without contribute of sediments(coral platforms - keys) even in mouths of rivers, still with discharges of sediment in suspension in the order of 150 x 106 tons/year and a discharge of 1,100 km3/ao (Orinoco River)2 Mangrove, Condition Key FactorJustification for SelectionEcological ThresholdsJustification (Natural Range of Variation)IndicatorsFactor Relative Priority Tide (amplitude) Mangroves occupy the coastal areas showered by the flow and reflux of the tides. Tides are a requirement for the establishment of the mangroves, once they guarantee the success of the competence among the facultative halophytes plants (typical of the mangrove) and the glicophytes (of freshwater).Mangroves develop in micromareales environments (< 2m de amplitude); mesomareales (2 - 4 m), and macromareales (>4m). Extreme tides (> 10 meters of amplitude) are associates to the erosion of the coast and to the lost of the mangrove forests and the invertebrates associated. Tides of small amplitude reduce the laminar flow and are associated with water stagnation, contributing to the accumulation of salts, reaching values> 60 ppm. 1Surf (energy) Mangroves occupy coastal tropical protected areas of the surf.In sectors of the coast characterized by high energy of the water (coastal and/or rivers), mangroves develop behind barriers or verge of sand. The strong surf (high energy) produces erosion destabilizing the substrate, collapsing the trees and impeding the establishment of the propagules. 2Freshwater: RiversThe volumes of freshwater represent an important fountain of subsidiary energy to the development of the system.  The excess of freshwater impedes the entrance of the wedge saline creating favorable conditions of competition to the glicophytes with relation to the facultative halophytes (vegetable species of the mangroves)1Freshwater: Rain Mangroves develop mostly where the average of annual rainfall is @ 1,300 mm, throughout the year. Mangroves systems are found mostly in rainfall conditions between > 1,000 mm/year y < 8,000 mm/yearTemperature The distribution of mangroves presents good correlation with the temperatures of the sea surface (> isotherm of the 20o C. Mangroves occur rarely where temperatures fall under the isotherm of the 20o C There has not been defined a threshold for high temperatures, but in St. Marta rose at more than 32 degrees and the mangrove does not recuperate; changes in temp going up affect mainly the fauna. See Walsh for Introduction to the Mangrove Ecology & Project GTZ-SEES for the cienaga St. Marta-Colombia. [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section.All the typical vegetable species of mangroves are sensitive to frosts, and not survive to long periods with temperatures under the 0o C. It is important to consider the temperature factor when there are drastic changes in the climate. Mangroves do not survive where very low temperatures (under the 0o C) have high frequency of recurrence, neither where the photosynthesis is reduce for long periods throughout the year. 2SalinityThe typical vegetal species of the mangroves are facultative halophytes. These occupy the areas where the plants are not tolerant to salt.Salt water per se is not a physical requisite to the presence of typical plants of mangrove.1ETP (potential evapotranspiration )Near the 90% of the mangroves are found in humid regions.Mangroves are practically unknown in dry weather.Mangroves are found occasionally in sub-humid climates and its occurrence is considered exceptional in conditions of semi-dryness2Reproductive successKey for the occupation, recuperation and recolonization of the system. Maintains the diversity of the genetic information flow.Thresholds are specifics to each site. It is fundamental the presence of propagules and seedlings, besides the adequate habitat phisiographyc conditions. The number of propagules necessary to maintain the stand is ( to the rate of loss of live of the forest or stand, more than the rate of loss of live of the seedlings. The number of propagules by species varies seasonally and it depends of the site. Consult: Snedaker & Snedaker (1984)1 Endangered species associated with mangroves: Mangrove rivulus (fish) Rivulus marmoratus. Species of special concern in Florida. See http://floridaconservation.org/pubs/endanger.html (official list, 1997) Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus) Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) see http://www.nps.gov/ever/ed/eddanger.htm) and http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/flbay/mari95.html for 1995 review of research and management in Florida Bay Atlantic salt marsh snake (Nerodia fasciata taeniata) See http://www.nature.nps.gov/wv/article2.htm from the National Park Service Intertidal Trapdoor Spider (Idioctis yerlata) in Queensland, Australia (see http://www.qmuseum.qld.gov.au/features/endangered/animals/trapdoor_spider.asp for description and management efforts) Wood stork ((Mycteria americana) nests in mangroves in the Florida Everglades Asian small-clawed otter Atlantic hawksbill turtle uses mangroves in southeast U. S. -- from U. S. National Marine Fisheries Service (see report at http://environment.about.com/library/weekly/blturt2.htm?once=true&) Pemphis acidula Fort. (Lythraceae) -- mangrove associate (plant) in the Phillipines. Mangrove-associated seahorses in southeast Asia Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in the Sunderbans mangal of India and Bangladesh Proboscis monkey, Malaysia Avicennia marina ssp. australasica considered rare in Australia Mangrove finch Brown pelican (Pelicanus occidentalis caroliniensis and Pelicanus occidentalis occidentalis) http://endangered.fws.gov/i/b/sab2s.html Mangrove orchid (Dendrobium mirbelianum), Queensland, Australia. See http://www.env.qld.gov.au/environment/plant/endangered/wie.html Smalltooth Sawfish (Pristis pectinata) See proposed listing at Federal Register: April 16, 2001 (Volume 66, Number 73) Proposed Rules Page 19414-19420 Mangrove cuckoo endangered on Montserrat Nightingale reed-warbler (Acrocephalus luscinia) in Saipan Mariana common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) in Saipan Information gaps and caveats Aaron Ellison: The dependence of mangrove species diversity and stand structural characteristics on rainfall and other large-scale climatic factors varies among geographic regions. Ellison (2001, in press) provides some global comparisons. The dependency is relatively weak in Central America (Ellison 2002, in press) but strong in Australasia. Elizabeth Farnsworth: Sea-level rise will soon rival pollution and habitat conversion as a major threat to mangrove ecosystems, especially the shallow carbonate platforms along the Caribbean coast and islands. Recommended priorities for conservation-driven research agenda and next steps Clarify that the site managers should get support from local experts in their region and not think that they can simply apply the information from the formats. Do an easy to use manual (going from basic to complex). Making it digestible (language among technician and ordinary) Example: Explain in a simple way (naturalistic style) giving references what healthy systems and basic indicators are. It is recommended to seek advice from experts in communication or environmental education. [Recommendation of Elizabeth Farnsworth. Consult with Candy Feller, Smithsonian Institution (SERC, Edgewater, Maryland), who has worked in projects of education in Belize.] When taking decisions of management is important to know the tropic network of the system. Consult with local expert (member of the community) When defining buffer zones in protected areas, is important to consider the area that is defined by extreme events. It is recommended to carry out a landscape ecology analysis (historic analysis) through mapping, satellite images, ethnoscience and aerial photography. References Cintrn-Molero, G. and Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1981. I. Los manglares de la costa brasilea: revisin de la literature. II. Los manglares de Santa Catarina. Informe Tcnico preparado para la Oficina Regional de Cincia y Tecnocloga para Amrica Latina y el Caribe de UNESCO y la Universidad Federal de Santa Catarina, Brasil. 67p. Cintrn-Molero, G. and Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1983. Introduccin a la ecologa del manglar. UNESCO/ROSTLAC, Montevideo. 109p. Cintrn-Molero, G.; Lugo, A.E.; Pool, D.J. & Morris, G. 1985. Mangroves of arid environments in Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. Biotropica, 10: 110-121. Duke, N. C., M. C. Ball, and J. C. Ellison. 1998. Factors influencing biodiversity and distributional gradients in mangroves. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 7: 27-48. Ellison, A.M. and E. J. Farnsworth. 1996. Anthropogenic disturbance of Caribbean Mangrove Ecosystems: past impacts, present trends, and future predictions. Biotropica 28: 549-565. Ellison, A. M. and E. J. Farnsworth. 2000. Mangrove communities. In M.D. Bertness, S.D. Gaines, and M. E. Hay (eds.). Marine Community Ecology. Pp. 423-442. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. Ellison, A. M., E. J. Farnsworth, and R. E. Merkt. 1999. Origins of mangrove ecosystems and the mangrove biodiversity anomaly. Global Ecology and Biogeography 8:95-115. Feller, I. C. 1995. Effects of nutrient enrichment on growth and herbivory of dwarf red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle). Ecological Monographs 65:477-506. Gomez, M. and S. Winkler. 1991. Bromelias en manglares del Pacifico de Guatemala. Rev.Biol.Trop 39:207-214. Graham, A. 1995. Diversification of Gulf Caribbean mangrove communities through Cenozoic time. Biotropica 27 (1):20-27. Hogarth, P. 1999. The biology of mangroves. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Linacre, E. and Geerts, B. 1997. Climates and weather explained. Routledge, London. Lugo, A.E. and Snedaker, S.C. 1974. The ecology of mangroves. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 5: 39-64. Murren, C.J. and A. M. Ellison. 1996. Effects of habitat, plant size, and floral display on male and female reproductive success of the neotropical orchid Brassavola nodosa. Biotropica 28:30-41. Pea, G.M. and Vasquez, P.G. 1985. Un relicto de manglar en San Pedro (Piura): estudio preliminary. Boletn de Lima, 7 (42): 27-32. Rico-Gray, V., J. T. Barber, L. B. Thien, E. G. Ellgaard, and J. J. Toney. 1989. An unusual animal-plant interaction: feeding of Schomburgkia tibicinis (Orchidaceae) by ants. Amer.J.Bot 76: 603-608. Schaeffer-Novelli, Y., Cintrn-Molero, G., Adaime, R.R. and Camargo, T.M. 1990. Variability of mangrove ecosystem along the Brazilian coast. Estuaries, 13 (2): 201-219. Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. and G. Cintrn-Molero. 1993. Mangroves of arid environments of Latin America. In: Lieth, H. & Al Masoom, A. (eds.). Towards the rational use of high salinity tolerant plants. Vol. 1. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp. 107-116. Tomlinson, P. B. 1995. The botany of mangroves. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Twilley, R. R. 1995. Properties of mangrove ecosystems and their relation to the energy signature of coastal environments. In: Hall, C. A. S. (ed.). Maximum power . pp. 43-62. University of Colorado Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA. Walter, K. S. and H. J. Gillett (eds.). 1998. 1997 IUCN red list of threatened plants. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 862 pp. Burger, J., K. Cooper, D. J. Gochfield, J. E. Saliva, C. Safina, D. Lipsky, and M. Gochfield. 1992. Dominance of Tilapia mossambica, an introduced fish species, in three Piero Rican estuaries. Estuaries 15: 239-245. Ellison, A.M. 1999. Cumulative effects of oil spills on mangroves. Ecological Applications 9: 1490-1492. Ellison, A.M. 2000. Mangrove restoration: Do we know enough? Restoration Ecology 8: 219-229. Ellison, A.M. and E.J. Farnsworth. 1990. The ecology of Belizean mangrove root-fouling communities. I. Epibenthic fauna are barriers to isopod attach of red mangrove roots. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 142: 91-104. Ellison, A. M. and E. J. Farnsworth. 1993. Seedling survivorship, growth, and response to disturbance in Belizean mangal. American Journal of Botany 80: 1137-1145. Ellison, A.M. and E. J. Farnsworth, 1996a. Spatial and temporal variability in growth of Rhizophora mangle saplings on coral cays: links with variation in insolation, herbivory, and local sedimentation rate. Journal of Ecology 84: 717-731. Ellison, A.M. and E. J. Farnsworth. 1996b. Anthropogenic disturbance of Caribbean Mangrove Ecosystems: past impacts, present trends, and future predictions. Biotropica 28: 549-565. Ellison, A. M. and E. J. Farnsworth. 1997. Simulated seal level change alters anatomy, physiology, growth, and reproduction of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) Oecologia 112: 435-446. Ellison, A. W. and E. J. Farnsworth. 2000. Mangrove communities. In: Bertness, M. D., S.D. Gaines, and M. E. Hay (eds.) Marine Community Ecology, Pp. 423-442. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. Ellison, A. M., E. J. Farnsworth, and R. R. Twilley. 1996. Facultative mutualism between red mangroves and root-fouling sponges in Belizean mangal. Ecology 77: 2431-2444. Farnsworth, E.J. and A.M. Ellison. 1991. Patterns of herbivory in Belizean mangrove swamps. Biotropica 23: 555-567. Farnsworth, E.J. and A. M. Ellison. 1996. Scale dependent spatial and temporal variability in biogeography of mangrove epibiont communities. Ecological Monographs 66: 45-66. Farnsworth, E. J. and A. M. Ellison. 1997a. Global patterns of pre-dispersal propagule predation in Mangrove Forests. Biotropica 29: 318-330. Farnsworth, E.J. and A. M. Ellison. 1997b. The global conservation status of mangroves. Ambio 26: 328-334. (An excellent review of global threats to mangroves and their ecological impacts. ) Farnsworth, E.J., A.M. Ellison, and W.K. Gong. 1996. Elevated CO2 alters anatomy, physiology, growth and reproduction of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.). Oecologia 108: 599-609. Feller, I.C. 1993. Effects of nutrient enrichment on growth and herbivory of dwarf red mangrove. Ph.D. Dissertation, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. Hogarth, P. 1999. The biology of mangroves. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Kjerfve, B., L. D. de Lacerad and E. H. S. Diop, (editors). 1997. Mangrove ecosystem studies in Latin America and Africa. UNESCO, Paris. Lugo, A.E. and Snedaker, S.C. 1974. The ecology of mangroves. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 5: 39-64. Myers R. L. and J. J. Ewel, eds. 1990. Ecosystems of Florida. University of Central Florida Press, Gainesville. Rabinowitz, D. 1978. Dispersal properties of mangrove propagules. Biotropica 10: 47-57. Rico-Gray, V., J. T. Barber, L. B. Thien, E. G. Ellgaard, and J. J. Toney. 1989. An unusual animal-plant interaction: feeding of Schomburgkia tibicinis (Orchidaceae) by ants. Amer.J.Bot 76: 603-608. Twilley, R. R. 1995. Properties of mangrove ecosystems and their relation to the energy signature of coastal environments. In: Hall, C. A. S. (ed.). Maximum power . pp. 43-62. University of Colorado Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA. Wolanski, E., Y. Mazda, and P. Ridd. 1992. Mangrove hydrodynamics. Pp. 43-62. In Robertson, A.I. and D.M. Alongi (eds.) 1992. Tropical mangrove ecosystems. American Geophysical Union. Washington, DC Klekowski, E.J., Jr., L. E. Corredor, J. M. Morrell, and C. A. del Castillo. 1994a. Petroleum pollution and mutation in mangroves. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28: 166-169. Klekowski, E.J., Jr., L. E. Corredor, R. Lowenfeld, E. H. Klekowski, and J. M. Morrell. 1994b. Using mangroves to screen for mutagens in tropical marine environments. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28: 346-350. Klekowski, E. J. Jr., R. Lowenfeld, and P. K. Hepler. 1994c. Mangrove genetics. 2. Outcrossing and lower spontaneous mutation rates in Puerto Rican Rhizophora. International Journal of Plant Science 155: 373-381. Klekowski, E. J. Jr., S. A. Temple, A. M. Siung-Chang, and K. Kumarsingh. 1999. An association of mangrove mutation, scarlet ibis, and mercury contamination in Trinidad, West Indies. Environmental Pollution 100: 1-5. Lowenfeld, R. and E. J. Klekowski, Jr. 1992. Mangrove genetics. 1. Mating systems and mutation rates of Rhizophora mangle in Florida and San Salvador Island, Bahamas. International Journal of Plant Science 153: 394-399. (Referencia.??? On p.21. Modelo hidrulico que describe flujo laminar en manglar y mudflats Alfonso Aguirre for references on page 22 . 1996 Australian publication sobre mtodos de monitoreo de ecosistemas tropicales on page 23. Ivan Jose Nieff..on page 23. Proyecto GTZ-VE para la cienaga Sta Marta-Colombia, on page 26. Robertson, A.I. and D.M. Alongi (eds.) 1992. Tropical mangrove ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. Snedaker, S.C. & Snedaker, J.G. (eds.) 1984. The mangrove ecosystem: research methods. Monographs on Oceanographic Methodology, vol. 8. United Kingdom, UNESCO Publication. Walsh for Introducion al la Ecologia de Manglar, on page 26. Windevoxel for references, on Page 22. Recommended resources Cicin-Sain, B. & Knecht, R.W. 1998. Integrated coastal and ocean management: concepts and practices. Washington, D.C., Island Press. 517 p. Citrn-Molero, G. & Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1983. Mangrove forests: ecology and response to natural and man induced stressors. In: Coral Reefs, Seagrass beds and Mangrove: their Interaction in the Coastal Zones of the Caribbean. UNESCO Reports in Marine Science, 23:87-113. Cintrn, G. & Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1983. Introduccin a la ecologa del manglar. UNESCO/ROSTLAC, Montevideo. 109p. Cintrn-Molero, G. & Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1992. Ecology and management of New World mangroves: 233-258. In: Seeliger, U. (ed.), Coastal Plant Communities of Latin America. California Academic Press. 392 p. Ellison, A. M. 2001. Macroecology of mangroves: large-scale patterns and processes in tropical coastal forests. Trees: Structure & Function (in press to be published in December 2001). Ellison, A. M. 2002. Wetlands of Central America. Wetlands Ecology & Management (in press). Ellison, A. M. and E. J. Farnsworth. 2000. Mangrove communities. In M.D. Bertness, S.D. Gaines, and M. E. Hay (eds.). Marine Community Ecology. Pp. 423-442. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. FAO forestry paper 117, Mangrove forest management guidelines (Rome, 1994). Field, C. (ed.). 1996. Restoration of mangrove ecosystems. ITTO and ISME, Okinawa, Japan. Hamilton, S.L. & Snedaker, S.C. (eds.). 1984. Handbook for mangrove area management. Hawaii, IUCN, UNEP & East-West Center, Environment and Policy Institute. 123 p. Hogarth, P. 1999. The biology of mangroves. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Kathiresan, K. and B. L. Bingham. 2001. Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 40:84-251. Longhurst, A. 1998. Ecological geography of the sea. Academic Press. 398 p. Mangrove Restoration, special section in Restoration Ecology 8(3): 217-259. September 2000. Schaeffer-Novelli, Y.; Cintrn-Molero, G.; Adaime, R.R. & Camargo, T.M. 1990. Variability of mangrove ecosystem along the Brazilian coast. Estuaries, 13 (2): 201-219. Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. & Cintrn, G. 1990. Status of mangrove research in Latin America and the Caribbean. Boletim Instituto Oceanogrfico, So Paulo, 38 (1): 93-97. Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. & Cintrn-Molero, G. 1993. Mangroves of arid environments of Latin America. In: Lieth, H. & Al Masoom, A. (eds.). Towards the Rational Use of High Salinity Tolerant Plants, vol. 1. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp. 107-116. Schaeffer-Novelli, Y.; Cintrn-Molero, G.; Soares, M.L.G. & T. De-Rosa, M.M.P. 2000. Brazilian mangroves. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, 3: 561-570. Sherman, K.; Alexander, L.M. & Golg, B.D. (eds.) 1993. Large marine ecosystems: stress, mitigation, and sustainability. Washington, D.C., American Association for the Advancement of Science Press. 376 p. Snedaker, S.C. & Snedaker, J.G. (eds.) 1984. The mangrove ecosystem: research methods. Monographs on Oceanographic Methodology, vol. 8. United Kingdom, UNESCO Publication. Suman, D.O. (ed.). 1994. El ecosistema de manglar en America Latina y la cuenca del Caribe: su manejo y conservacin. Rosensteil School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL Note by Aaron Ellison: Kathiresan and B. L. Bingham (2001) and Ellison & Farnsworth (2000) provide a good review of the mangrove ecosystem. The special feature in Restoration Ecology (September 2000) on mangrove restoration, along with C. Fields 1996 book on mangrove restoration Restoration of mangrove ecosystems provide a wealth of management techniques. All site managers should have the FAO forestry paper 117, Mangrove forest management guidelines (Rome, 1994), on their shelves. A good, relatively recent overview of issues for management and conservation of mangroves in Latin America is provided by D. O. Suman, editor (1994), El ecosistema de manglar en America Latina y la cuenca del Caribe: su manejo y conservacin, available from the Division of Marine Affairs & Policy, Rosensteil School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA. 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