ࡱ> @ ^Pbjbj "uu^H&.5.5.5.5,Z5&6T0b6b6b6b6b6b6b6b6SSSSSSS$fVRXlS =b6b6 = =Sb6b6ScGcGcG =Nb6b6ScG =ScGcGrGO2Pb6V6 PdG.5WAyPQT06TPV$YC$YP&&$YP$b6(8cG:<P;b6b6b6SS&&E&&6Marine habitat types 6.2. Coral reefs General description and geographic variation No information generated. Community types/zonation and major gradients within the system (patterns) No information generated. Ecological integrity factors Seagrass beds, coral reefs, coastal lagoons, estuaries, mangroves, and associated wetlands are functionally connected in many areascreating a mosaic matrix system. There are also functional relationships within the coastal zone that Integrate land and sea ecologically. We identified three types of key factors: First order determinants: Primary key factors (e.g. physiography, hydrologic regime, and currents) These primary key factors determine the most vigorous or absolute viability (existence of the system) within their ranges of natural variability. It is not appropriate to discuss thresholds for these factors. We need to understand what maintains the integrity without the physiographic or hydrological thresholds. Second order determinants (environmental determinants): Among the many environmental determinants, we analyzed the following factors that are common to the systems. Penetration of light / depth Temperature Salinity It was relatively easy to identify the scope (variability) of these determinants because they are widely reported in the literature. (No particular citations listed) Third order determinants (principally biotic factors): The determinants of the third order were principally specific to the scale of site and the surrounding seascape. We identify the following factors that are common to the systems that we analyzed.: Percent Live Substrate Cover Level of Herbivory Recruitment and biological connectivity Distribution and abundance of associated flora and fauna Nutrient levels in marine waters Degree of Turbidity and Sedimentation Ecological integrity factors for landscape context Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for landscape context of coral reefs PRIVATEKey factorsJustification for the Selection of the FactorMinimal Integrity ThresholdsJustification for the determination of the threshold (natural Range of variation)Indicators for field monitoringTurbidityTurbidity limits the development coral communities by blocking sunlight needed for metabolic processes within the coral colonies. It will ultimately have ramifications for coral species diversity, abundance, and distribution.Threshold 100 mg/l (check limits in Rogers' manual, 1990) Production of mucus at certain levels (look for details on in Rogers or another work) Thresholds are well documented in scientific literature. It is useful to consider turbidity together with salinity and temperature.Seasonal variability of sedimentation and turbidity;; contribution of sediments using the universal soil loss equation ( To see Hallock, Muller-Karger and You Find, 1993, Natl. Geog. Beast. And Explor.); use of Secchi disk; aerial images, etc.TemperatureTemperature, together is one of the critical factors regulating the survival of coral reef species and the functioning of the coral reeff ecosystem. Temperature affects biological processes including growth, reproduction, symbiosis, metabolic rate and reproductive capacity of individuals. Threshold: 24 30 C (on range extremes there are species that tolerate temperatures up to 20; Temporal extreme changes in temperature occur and if limited species will survive.Thresholds are well documented in scientific literature Also it is known that the warming of the seas is seriously affecting the viability of coral reefs worldwide. Consider the synergystic effects of temperature together with salinity and turbidity.Determination of thermal (spatial and temporal) regimes using a variety of techniques according to resources and specific conditions. SalinitySalinity, alone and in combination with other physical-chemical aspects, is a key factor in the functioning of the coral reef. Salinity affects biological processes (e.g. growth, reproduction, symbiosis, metabolic rate and reproductive capacity of the organisms, etc.). Threshold 26 - 36 ppm [Experts, please provide literature citation. Thanks.] Consider that there are species that tolerate ends of salinity extremes Consider salinity together with temperature and turbidity..Determination of salinity regime of the reef, with a design that considers the spatial and temporal variation and the proximity of sources of fresh water, depth, precipitation monitoring stations and drought, etc. Generally refractometers are used in situ to take measurements, or they can take water samples to the laboratory for analysis.NutrientsCoral reefs ecosystems exist in an oligotrophic environment. Increased contribution of nutrients for medium or long term duration favors the growth of benthic and planktonic algae and diminishes the coverage of live coral through direct and indiect competition.Nitrogen and phosphorus; information exists in Hatcher, 1990 and also Clark, 1996. [Experts, please complete the citation in the References section. Thanks.]Thresholds are documented in scientific literatureMeasure the patterns of spatial and seasonal distribution chlorophyll (concentrations) and nutrients using different methods, including the use of satellite images and measurements in situ.Recruitment and biological connectivityMaintenance of genetic flow among adjacent populations contributes to the maintenance and/or recovery of the structure and function of the reef following disturbances. Due to larval dispersal by the majority of shallow water tropical marine species, the viability of the populations depends on the contribution of larvae and juvenile of nearby or distant sites, that are connected by oceanic currents. There is no a number for this factor Specific information will be needed for each situation. Thresholds ?? Integrety will be determined by healthy source populations & appropriate currents. In marine organisms it is difficult to know the minimal viable size of a population to guarantee a suitable supply of larvae. Nevertheless, information exists for some species (related to the cycle of life for particular taxonomic groups and their habitat requirements through development, and for the capacity larval distribution over different geographic scales) [Experts, please provide literature citation. Thanks.]Large, healthy and widely distributed populations of coral reef flora and fauna provide for the long-term survival of coral reef ecosystems. This occurs on local and regional scales, depending on the particular geographical area. Determine the influence of oceanic currents in the region. Estimate the degree of connectivity by determining the genetic distance of adjacent populations in different species. Maps of reefs of the region with information about coral coverage, diversity of species, and coral health. Comparative analysis of conditions in protected areas v. not protected in each region.Influence of currentsCurrents provide pathways for genetic flow among populations for dispersion of the larvae, and distribute nutrients and pollutants.There is no known threshold. Just known to be a critical energy input in coral reef ecosystems. Develop ad hoc.Knowledge of the general influence of regional and local currents and their role in the transport of larvae of certain species and other factors will help identify the patterns of currents to be maintained or at least monitored. Speed and direction of the currents (especially at important events like seasonal spawning of ish and invertebrate species The methodology is complex and needs special equipment including current meters, satellite images, etc.Note: For monitoring, some of the key factors, it is important to take in account spatial and seasonal variation in order to have representative information. The guidance given by Rogers et al., (1994) is recommended. For monitoring currents, consider Doppler (ADCP), consult Joaqun Buitrago for more information. Ecological integrity factors for condition Table xxx. Ecological integrity factors for condition of coral reefs PRIVATEKey factorsJustification for the Selection of the FactorThreshold (is) of Minimal IntegrityJustification for the determination of the threshold (natural Range of variation)Indicators for field monitoringRelative abundance and diversity of carnivores and key herbivores (total biomass and number of species), i.e. complete or fragmented trophic structure in terms of species and total biomassThe relative proportion of carnivores:herbivores support the health of the system and its diversity/complexity, and make it less vulnerable to changes of conditions (e.g.. fish defecate and fertilize, herbivores change coverage of algae)There is no general formula. Determined ad hoc. Some examples include the species of fish in question presence/absence of some species of limited abundance species (tortoises, and manatees) Evaluate the information by comparing with ecologically similar areas. Consider different states known due to exploitation, and historical trends of population decline and deterioration of the coral community. Composition measures will be will be the basis for comparative analysis that determines the viability of local communities. The assumption is that at some predator:herbivore composition measure degradation in the structure and functioning of the coral communities will occur.Censuses of abundance, biomass and composition of species inside taxonomic groups (e.g. the family Serranidae), herbivorous fish (Scaridae, etc.) fish coralvoros (Chaetodontidae), scrapers (Acanthuridae) and others etc., Counts of tortoises and manatees.Reproduction of the organisms of the reef community.Guarantees the survival of the reef community.Adequate sex ratios and abundance of the breeding population of selected species. The values of these proportions are specific for certain groups of organisms. Consult the literature. [Experts, please provide literature citation. Thanks.]It guarantees the degree of recruitment necessary to assure the maintenance or growth of viable populations.Censuses of abundance and recruitment, population structure and breeders determined by different methods, according to the organisms. (E.g. Vertical composition, seasonal variation of the proportion for sexes and of the proportion of sexually mature individuals, abundance and vertical structure (depths) of the reproductive aggregations; Census of juvenile and recruitment in spawning or nursery areas.) Rate of growth of corals The rate of historical and current growth indicates the form and conditions under which the coral has developed, and the nature of the reef formation.Thresholds for the rate of growth are defined by analyzing rates from previous decades/centuries. Those measurements of can be used to develop natural ranges of variation. The trend of the health of the reef community is reflected in the chronology of growth over a centurys time. The threshold will indicate the pace of natural growth of corals in past decades or centuries. This will present a better picture of the natural variations of growth, and provide a maximum potential growth rate under some environmental conditions. Growth of new mass must exceed rate of bioeroisnInvestigation: Historical analysis of coral growth (sclerochronology). Monitoring: Annual monitoring is recommended with the same methodology if change is expected to occur quickly.Level of herbivoryRegulates the abundance of algae and allows the recruitment of new individuals of the species of attached/sessile fauna of the reef. Excess herbivory can affect the rate of coral reef bioerosion. Suitable abundance of sea urchin Diadem: 30-70/m2. Abundance of herbivorous fish according to species (see literature for estimates of adequate levels)..A balance must exist among the processes of erosion and accretion of the corals and a drastic reduction of the herbivorous organisms provokes the increase of algal coverage and the suffocation of the corals. The system shifts to one dominated by algae. In the Carib, the massive mortality of sea urchins Diadem at the beginning of the 80s allowed an increase of the coverage algae in many reefs. In the Pacific Ocean, the increase of algal biomass because of ENSO [Experts, please write out the full name of ENSO. Thanks.] resulted in an excessive increase in the populations of sea urchins (Diadem) and herbivory resulted in considerable bioerosion of coral reef formations. Censuses of abundance of species of herbivores including both vertebrates and invertebrates.Coverage of living coral Coral are the principal builder of the reef and the base of the ecosystem. Therefore, it is important to maximize the quantity of living coral.For the Caribbean a reef with coverage of more than 40 % is considered in good condition. In the Pacific Ocean, due to the massive mortality of corals caused by the ENSO there is now an estimated average of 25 % live coral coverage. Greater than 60 % coverage of macro algae represents serious degradation of the systems.Information from 1950-60 indicates that in the Caribbean sea a healthy reef had more than 60 % of live coral coverage. Information from 1960 indicates that in the Pacific Ocean the reefs had a coverage of 90-100 %, but now the average is only 25 %. To preserve coral reefs it is recommended to preserve what currently exists without a focus on minimal percentage of coverage. The viability information is insufficient.Measurements of the live coral coverage, sessile fauna and algae (carpet of macro algae) by means of transects in situ. Information gaps and caveats We do not know much about the natural states of coral reefs, because the studies focused on the monitoring of coral reefs began in the 1950s by then they had already been altered by human activities. The experts consider it risky to establish thresholds for ecological factors for systems about which we know so little about the range of natural variability. In addition, for some physical-chemical factors, the thresholds can change due to synergistic influences among the factors themselves. The viability of the marine systems depends on large scale spatial and temporal processes. These processes require functioning seascapes at scales far beyond the reef itselfareas at which complex regional process occur. Therefore networks of conservation areas are needed to effectively conserve the coral reef ecological system. More studies about genetics are needed. (e.g. Genetic distance of adjacent populations of some species and mapping the diversity and coral coverage of the reefs of the region to determine the nature and controlling factors for connectivity. More studies of composition and rates of recruitment to understand better the condition of the reefs. We recommend to focus on the following coral genera:: Acropora, Montastrea, Porites and Agaricia in the Caribbean; Pocillopora, Porites and Pavona in the Pacfic; Siderastrea and Mossusmilia in coastal Brazil; and fish species of the following two families , Serranidae (grouers) and Lutjanidae (snappers), whose abundance in the coral reefs has diminished in many areas due to over-fishing. Recommended priorities for conservation-driven research agenda and next steps Continue to analyze ecological integrity of marine systems in detail. Ensure that conservation area managers or supporters of conservation of coral reefs have the necessary information and capacity to apply the knowledge we assembled at the Workshop. Develop an analytical process similar to the Herndon viability workshop in different Latin American countries to define strategies focused on decision makersin particular situation we may need to include economic, political and cultural contexts in addition to environmental aspects. Construct a paradigm with a vision for coral reef conservation in Latin America that incorporates the regional economic, social, political and cultural factors. To achieve this goal, we propose concrete action plans. Literature Cited Clark, 1996, on page 5. Hallock, Muller-Karger and You Find, 1993, Natl. Geog. Beast. And Explor., on page 4. Hatcher, 1990, on page 5. Rogers's manual, 1990 on page 3 Production of mucus (to look for number in Rogers or another work), on page 3. us (to look for number in Rogers or another work), on page 3. Antonius, A. y E. Ballesteros. 1998. Epizoism: A new threat to coral health in Caribbean reefs. Revista de Biologa Tropical. 46 (5): 145-156. Clark, 1996, on page 5. Doppler, Monitorear corrientes, ver Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) consultar a Joaqun Buitrago para ms informacin. [Experts, please complete the citation, Thanks. Please see page 6 Notas.]. Hallock, Muller-Karger y Hallas, 1993, Natl. Geog. Res. and Explor., on page 4. Hatcher, 1990, on page 5. Hill, M. S. 1998. Spongivory on Caribbean reefs releases corals from competition with sponges. Oecologia, 117(1-2):143-150. Meylan, A. 1988. Spongivory in hawksbill turtles: A diet of glass. Science, 239:393-395 Rogers C.S. 1985. Degradation of Caribbean and western Atlantic coral reefs and decline of associated fisheries. Proc. 5th Int. Coral Reef Congr 6: 491-496. Rogers, C.S. 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation. Mar Ecol. Prog. Ser. 62: 185-202. Rogers, C., Garrison, G., Hills, Z., and Franke, M. 1994. Coral Reef Monitoring Manual for the Caribbean and Western Atlantic. U.S. National Park Service. Manual de Rogers, 1990 on page 3 Produccin de mucus (buscar cifra en Rogers 1990 u otro trabajo), on page 3. Recommended resources Birkeland, C. (ed.) 1997. Life and Death of Coral Reefs. Chapman and Hall, USA 536 p. Doppler, Monitorear corrientes, ver Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) consultar a Joaqun Buitrago para ms informacin.( Monitoring currents, see Doppler (ADCP) - consult Joaqun Buitrago for more information.) [Experts, please complete the citation, Thanks. Please see page 6 Notas.]. Rogers, C., Garrison, G., Hills, Z., and Franke, M. 1994. Coral Reef Monitoring Manual for the Caribbean and Western Atlantic. U.S. National Park Service. Westmacott, S., K. Teleki, S. Wells and J. West. 2000. Management of Bleached and Severely Damaged Coral Reefs. Information Press, Oxford. IUCN, Gland. 36 p. Wilkinson, C. (ed.) 2000. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. 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