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Forest Fragmentation

The Effects of Urban Sprawl on Forest Fragmentation and Parcelization

Contributed by, Tom Luther, GIS Specialist,USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry.

Definitions

Introduction

Impacts of Forest Fragmentation and Urban Sprawl

Remedies to Fragmentation, Parcelization, and Urban Sprawl

Links

Definitions:

Forest Fragmentation:

The process in which large, contiguous forest landscapes are broken into smaller, more isolated fragments, surrounded by human-modified environments (agricultural lands and urban/suburban development).1

Parcelization:

The reduction in size of forestland ownerships that frequently results from division of properties during land transfer.2

Urban Sprawl:

The spreading of urban developments (as houses and shopping centers) on undeveloped land near a city.3

The USDA Forest Service considers forest fragmentation to be the same as the loss of open space.

Introduction

The American lifestyle, and the public policies supporting that lifestyle, contribute to the fragmentation of forests. More and more Americans are moving to rural areas in search of peaceful country settings. Many take advantage of the amount of open space and build big houses on large lots. The phenomenon of people moving out of congested urban environments to settle in rural areas is known as urban sprawl. Urban sprawl is characterized by wasteful, inefficient land-use practices because development takes place horizontally instead of vertically. Urban sprawl leads to the parcelization of land as people buy, subdivide, and sell land. These land transfers divide forest resources into more numerous, smaller-sized parcels. Parcelization is often a precursor to forest fragmentation, the breaking up of large tracts of forest into smaller fragments through land conversion. As a result of human development, many forestlands are converted to long-term or permanent non-forest use. Approximately 2.4 million acres of forestland in the nation is being converted to developed land every 2 years.3

Contiguous forest habitat can also be fragmented due to natural disturbances like storms and fires.4 However, human-caused forest fragmentation can be much more destructive than natural disturbances. Since it disrupts many ecological processes, forest fragmentation threatens the health and sustainability of forests. It endangers wildlife habitats, both plant and wildlife diversity, and water quality. Fragmentation can also impair the viability of a forest as an economic resource for recreation and timber. Additionally, fragmentation destroys irreplaceable, pristine forests that enhance the natural beauty of many regions.

Impacts of Forest Fragmentation and Urban Sprawl

Ecological Impacts:

• Sprawling development can destroy wildlife habitat and cut off the routes animals use to find food and water.
• Foreign plant and animal species can invade local environments more easily, sometimes harming native species. For example, the hemlock wooly adelgid, a serious threat to hemlock trees, has been spread to new sites in New England on ornamental hemlock and other species used in landscaping.
• Some wildlife species that can expose humans and pets to rabies and Lyme disease thrive in a fragmented forest.
• There is a greater risk of water pollution from oil and gasoline washing off paved surfaces (such as roads and parking lots) during rainstorms and from pesticides, lawn fertilizers, and other chemicals.
• Flood potential can rise because there are more impervious surfaces, such as pavement and concrete. Natural areas absorb rainfall like sponges, releasing water slowly. Torrents of water from hard surfaces rush directly into streams, rivers, and lakes, often causing soil erosion and flooding.
• Hard surfaces can limit the amount of water that seeps into the ground, affecting the water that is available for wells and irrigation
• There is a greater risk to life and property from wildfires due to the increased amount of urban/wildland interface.
• Some species of birds and other animals can only live where there are large tracts of undeveloped land. Many migrating songbirds, called "Neotropical migrants," have suffered serious population declines, due to both fragmented habitat in the United States and loss of habitat in their southern wintering grounds in Central and South America.

Economic and social impacts:

• When businesses and residences are spread out, it costs the community more to maintain roads, sewers, school bus routes, and other services.
• Property taxes creep upward as the growing population requires more services, prompting people to sell their open land to developers. Some who cannot afford to pay these higher taxes and are forced to move further out into rural areas, setting the cycle in motion all over again.
• The spread-out nature of sprawl makes walking impractical, leaving people more dependent on automobiles. They commute further to jobs and services. Eventually, the increases in traffic, noise, and pollution diminish the quality of life.
• Because forested tracts are small, landowners often cannot earn enough income from their land to cover the cost of writing and implementing a management plan. This, in turn, can drive forest- and agriculture-based businesses out, costing the community jobs and money that used to be spent in the local economy.
• Sometimes traditional land uses like timber production and farming face additional pressure from new ordinances that regulate logging, noise, or odors.
• The culture of the community can change. For example, residents may have hunted, fished, and hiked freely on private land. Greater population density often leads to the posting of land, cutting off this access.

Remedies to Fragmentation, Parcelization, and Urban Sprawl

First, it is important to understand what motivates people to develop land in this sprawling, inefficient manner:

• The lower cost of living in rural and suburban areas makes it possible for more people to own their own homes
• People who want to escape congested, dirty, and noisy urban environments are attracted to more peaceful natural settings. Residents of rural and suburban areas have more opportunities to experience nature.
• Developers build in rural and suburban areas because there is a market for the product.

What can be done to minimize harmful forest fragmentation, parcelization, and urban sprawl and still give people affordable, pleasant places to live?

Many believe it is possible to create communities that are more in harmony with the environment, cost municipalities less to service, and retain most of the features people enjoy in traditional suburban neighborhoods. Remedies lie in how the land is developed and how public policy influences development. The following are generally accepted recommendations for minimizing the negative impacts of forest fragmentation, parcelization, and urban sprawl:

Planning and development changes:

• Revise zoning ordinances by lowering the size of building lots to minimize the amount of land consumed. Many municipalities passed zoning laws requiring larger lots, hoping to slow development. Most found it had little or no effect on the pace of development, and it served only to increase communities' operating costs in the long run.
• Lay out subdivisions to "cluster" buildings, thereby leaving a substantial part of the tract undeveloped. Attention should be paid to protecting corridors leading to core forests. A typical subdivision in northern New England requires 1- or 2-acre lots. Twenty houses can consume 40 acres, leaving little open space. Placing the same 20 homes on 1/4-acre lots and using attractive landscaping and design elements to create privacy consumes only 5 acres, leaving room for 35 acres of open space. To ensure that the developer leaves open space, the municipality can require 2 acres per home, but specify the clustering and conservation of open space. Builders usually like this arrangement because it costs them less to build roads and provide other service features. This benefit continues for the community, which spends less on road and utility maintenance, school bus routes, and other services.

Public Policy Changes:

Provide funding for programs to encourage rehabilitation and enhancement of existing population centers.

One of the key driving factors behind urban sprawl is a declining quality of life in existing urban and suburban centers. Money for projects that enhance the livability of these communities would address a root cause of the problem.

Provide incentive programs to landowners who want to keep their land undeveloped.

Studies show that residential development in New England typically costs the community $1.10 to service for every $1.00 it raises in tax revenue. In other words, residential development doesn't pay enough in taxes to cover the cost of the services it needs. By contrast, open space costs only $.43 for every $1.00 raised. It actually "subsidizes" residential development. It makes good economic and environmental sense to encourage landowners to preserve their land as open space. Many states have "current use" property tax programs that tax the land on its present use, not on its potential value for development. There are penalties if the landowner later decides to develop the land.

Change estate tax laws to allow landowners to pass on their land to family members without large tax bills.

It is a misconception that only wealthy people own land. People whose land has been in the family for generations are often shocked to find out their land has skyrocketed in value. Heirs are often forced to divide up the land and sell it for development to pay estate taxes.

Public agencies should set a good example by siting facilities wisely.

Schools and other public buildings should be positioned together, consuming no more land than is necessary. This arrangement is also much more convenient for residents.

Modify Federal and state transportation funding programs.

Governments at all levels could add criteria to their transportation funding programs that would require grantees to consider forest fragmentation, parcelization, and urban sprawl in their proposals.

Natural resource conservation and human activity do not have to be in conflict. Wise planning can help to ensure healthy communities and abundant natural resources for future generations.

Links

All links listed below leave the Private Forestland Owner Library of ConserveOnline:

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT RESOURCES:

U.S. Department of Agriculture

• Forest Service Forest Legacy Program: Protecting Private Forest Lands from being Converted to Non-Forest Uses.
  This is the official web site for the Forest Legacy Program (FLP), a federal program in partnership with states, supports state efforts to protect environmentally sensitive forest lands. Designed to encourage the protection of privately owned forest lands, the program focuses on the acquisition of partial interests in privately owned forest lands. Get information on qualifications and specifications for the program in your state.

U.S. Department of Commerce

• Living on the Coast: Smart Growth Tools on the Internet
  On this website NOAA's (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) Coastal Services Center provides guidelines for sustainable development, techniques to implement smart growth, and resources on smart growth, sustainable development, and coastal management.
• Smart Growth
  A list of smart growth resources, including websites, articles, books, and videos, provided by the Economic Development Administration.

U.S. Department of Energy

• Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development
  The Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development provides technical information to communities to assist them in sustainable development. The Center's website contains examples of sustainable communities, a list of technical and financial resources, model sustainable development codes and ordinances, and articles on various urban sprawl and sustainable development topics.

NASA

• NASA Regional Earth Science Applications Center located at the University of Connecticut.
  This website is the home of NAUTILIS, the Northeast Applications of Useable Technology In Land planning for Urban Sprawl Program. This program is dedicated to making the power of remote sensing technology available, accessible and useable to land use planners and decision makers concerned about the impacts of sprawl on their communities.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

• Antidotes to Sprawl
  "Antidotes to Sprawl," maintained by EPA's Region 5 Office, provides a comprehensive list of Federal contacts on a number of urban sprawl, smart growth, livable community, and pollution issues to help communities promote sustainable use.
• Smart Growth Strategies for New England
  EPA's New England Region has developed a Smart Growth Action Plan in accordance with its "Livable Communities" initiative. This website provides a description of the Action Plan, grant opportunities, training opportunities, and a list of livable communities resources.

Additional Resources:

• Forest Fragmentation in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed
  The Society of American Foresters has provided the executive summary and the complete report (in PDF format) of "Forest Fragmentation in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed." This excellent report is the product of a roundtable series on forest fragmentation sponsored by the USDA Forest Service and the Society of American Foresters. The report describes in detail forest fragmentation and its ecological, economic, and policy impacts.
• Yale Forest Forum's Initiative on Forest Fragmentation
  The goals of this Yale University program are to research and understand the problem of forest fragmentation in the United States, provide broad access to credible information on the topic, and promote a national discussion on solutions to the problem. The website includes some of the papers and presented at the Fragmentation 2000 conference (see below). The Yale Forest Forum's "Forestland Conversion, Fragmentation, and Parcelization" Report is available for download. Also available is a thorough list of forest fragmentation resources.
• Fragmentation 2000
  Read this summary of the September 2000 conference "Fragmentation 2000: Sustaining Private Forests in the 21st Century" at this website. This site includes an order form for proceedings from the conference as well.
• NAUTILUS

Smart Growth/Urban Sprawl:

• Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse
  This organization makes available growth management tools, techniques, and strategies. Their website is one of the most comprehensive online resources for urban sprawl. It includes a list of sprawl resources, related policies, recent articles, and a calendar of sprawl events.
• Sierra Club - Challenge to Sprawl Campaign
  On this website the Sierra Club provides an overview of urban sprawl and various reports, articles, and resources on the topic.
• PlannersWeb - Sprawl Guide
  PlannersWeb provides an online Sprawl Guide that describes the roots of urban sprawl, the problems it causes, and potential sprawl solutions. The website also contains a list of articles, books, and other urban sprawl resources.
• Smart Growth Network
  The Smart Growth Network is a coalition of over 20 partners working to promote smart growth. Both NOAA and the EPA's Development, Community, and Environment Division are network partners.
• Smart Growth America
  Smart Growth America is another nationwide coalition that promotes the protection of farmland and open space, the revitalization of neighborhoods, keeping housing affordable, and livable communities.
• Keep America Growing
  Keep America Growing is a coalition of government and non-government entities that works with rural communities to preserve farm, ranch, and forest lands, and steer development away from those lands.

For more information contact:

Tom Luther,

GIS Specialist USDA Forest Service,

Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry

271 Mast Rd.,

Durham NH 03824

phone: 603-868-7710

fax: 603-868-7604/1066

e-mail: tluther@fs.fed.us

1 Cooksey, Richard. 2000. Forest fragmentation in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. In: DeCoster, Lester A., ed. Proceedings of the forest fragmentation 2000 conference-Sustaining forests in the 21st century; 2000 September 17-20; Annapolis, MD. Alexandria, VA: Sampson Group, Inc.: 80-90.

2 Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1559 p.

3 & 4 DeCoster, Lester A. 2000. Summary of the forest fragmentation 2000 conference-How forests are being nibbled to death by DUCs, and what to do about it. In: DeCoster, Lester A., ed. Proceedings of the forest fragmentation 2000 conference-Sustaining private forests in the 21st century; 2000 September 17-20; Annapolis, MD. Alexandria, VA: Sampson Group, Inc.: 2-12.